Fernando Alcoforado*
This article aims to present the scientific and technological advances that need to be achieved for humanity to colonize other worlds. Three of the last books we published [1][2][3] highlight the need for human colonization of other worlds, given that humanity could be subject to extinction with threats to its existence from planet Earth, such as, for example, the repetition of the great eruptions of volcanoes like those that occurred 250 million years ago that ended a cycle of life on Earth and climate change that could become catastrophic and jeopardize the existence of life on Earth, as well as threats from outer space such as, for example, the collision on planet Earth of asteroids, comets, planets of the solar system and orphan planets that roam in outer space, by the worsening of the terrestrial environment resulting from the continuous distancing of the Moon in relation to the Earth, by the emission of gamma rays resulting from the explosion of supernova stars that have the power to annihilate life on Earth, from the death of the Sun, from the collision between the Andromeda and Milky Way galaxies and from the death of the Universe.
To deal with the repetition of large eruptions of volcanoes like those that occurred 250 million years ago that ended a life cycle on Earth and climate change that, when it becomes catastrophic, jeopardizes the existence of life on Earth, it is necessary to monitor all volcanoes and the changes in Earth’s climate to plan well in advance for humans to escape to potentially habitable locations in the solar system such as Mars, Titan (Saturn’s moon) and Callisto (Jupiter’s moon) with the implantation of space colonies. To deal with asteroids that may collide with planet Earth, the strategy consists of monitoring those found in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter and those found in the “Kuiper Belt” after the planet Neptune, as well as monitoring comets located in the “Oort Cloud” at the edge of the solar system and divert them from their course if they are detected with enough time to launch powerful interceptor rockets. To deal with the possibility of collision of planets in the solar system with Earth, it is important to monitor the performance of each one of them and identify habitable planets for humans outside the solar system to plan their escape to exoplanets that are likely to be habitable for humans. such as, for example, “Proxima b” orbiting a star that is part of the Alpha Centauri system, the closest to the solar system, where space colonies would be implanted.
To deal with the collision of orphan planets on planet Earth, it is necessary to monitor the performance of each one of them and plan the escape of human beings to other possible habitable places for human beings located in the solar system such as Mars, Titan (Saturn’s moon ) and Callisto (moon of Jupiter) with the deployment of space colonies. In the case of the profound deterioration of the terrestrial environment resulting from the Moon’s continued distancing from the Earth, it is necessary to monitor the Earth’s environment to assess its evolution and, in the case of the concrete threat of gamma-ray emission resulting from the explosion of supernova stars , it is necessary to monitor its occurrence and evaluate the possibility of the Earth being hit by gamma rays to plan, in both cases, the escape of human beings to possible habitable places in the solar system such as Mars, Titan (Saturn’s moon) and Callisto (Saturn’s moon). Jupiter) where space colonies would be implanted. Before the death of the Sun, humanity should monitor the evolution of this star to plan the escape of human beings to leave the solar system and reach a new planet in another planetary system that is habitable for human beings. Among several exoplanets (planets located outside the solar system orbiting other stars), the most viable is the exoplanet “Proxima b” orbiting the closest star to the Sun, part of the Alpha Centauri system, which is 4.2 light years from Earth. Other exoplanets need to be researched to assess whether they can be inhabited by humans.
Before the collision between the Andromeda and Milky Way galaxies, it is very important to monitor their evolution and research the existence of exoplanets habitable by humans in a galaxy closer to the Milky Way to draw plans for human escape, for example, for the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy located 25,000 light years from Earth which is a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way located in the constellation of Canis Major or the Large Magellanic Cloud which is located 163 thousand light years from Earth. It is necessary to research the existence or not of a multiverse or parallel universes, which is another important question to be studied because the existence or not of parallel universes opens up the possibility of human beings surviving the end of our Universe heading to other parallel universes where exoplanets need to be researched to assess whether they can be inhabited by humans. Having verified the existence of parallel universes, it is necessary to promote scientific and technological advances to know how to access them, discover exoplanets habitable by human beings, aiming at the escape of human beings to parallel universes.
Mars, which has been explored for about 60 years, should be the first alternative to be colonized by humans. The United States and the Soviet Union tried repeatedly during the Cold War to orbit the Red Planet with a satellite and land with a probe. Later, it was the turn of the rovers to walk there, but a long road of many mistakes and successes was necessary until we reached the current level. Several probes, rovers (space vehicles) and landers (spacecraft that land on the ground of a celestial body) have been sent to Mars in the last 60 years [4]. The Mars Exploration Rovers mission or NASA Mars Exploration Vehicles consists of sending geological space vehicles (rovers) to Mars equipped with several modern instruments capable of moving around to explore the Martian environment [5]. Each vehicle must be carried on its own rocket and land on Mars. In January 2004, two robots or rovers called Spirit and Opportunity landed on opposite sides of the red planet. These robotic explorers traveled for miles across the Martian surface, surveying field geology and making atmospheric observations. Carrying identical and sophisticated sets of scientific instruments, the two rovers found evidence of ancient Martian environments where intermittent moisture and habitable conditions existed. First among the mission’s scientific objectives was to search and characterize a wide range of rocks and soils for clues about past water activity on Mars. The rovers were aimed at locations on opposite sides of Mars that appear to have had liquid water in the past. Spirit landed in Gusev Crater, a possible ancient lake in a giant impact crater. Opportunity landed on Meridiani Planum, a place where mineral deposits suggested Mars had a wet history.
NASA sent the Curiosity rover in 2011, which was the first landing on Mars with the help of a parachute and, moments before contact with the ground, rockets were fired to reduce the descent speed [5]. The Curiosity rover landed on its wheels, the rope was cut, and the lander flew off to land a safe distance. Curiosity remains operational today with the aim of studying the habitability of the planet Mars and its areology (a science analogous to terrestrial geology). Early in its mission, Curiosity’s science tools found chemical and mineral evidence of habitable environments in the Martian past in Gale Crater. In 2013, NASA sent the MAVEN probe (Mars Atmospheric and Volatile EvolutioN) which is still collecting measurements of the Martian atmosphere to help understand the complex climate changes on Planet Mars. The mission could help finally understand how Mars lost its atmosphere in the past. Long ago, Mars had an atmosphere capable of maintaining liquid water on its surface, which is necessary for the development of life as we know it. However, some phenomenon occurred so that the planet lost much of the atmosphere and, consequently, its ability to have stable water on the surface. MAVEN provides information about how and at what speed atmospheric gases currently leak into space. This makes MAVEN the first spacecraft to take direct measurements of the Martian atmosphere.
In 2016, the ExoMars Mission, the result of a partnership between the ESA (European Space Agency) and Russia’s Roscosmos, had as its main objective to search for signs of ancient life on Mars and was designed to map the Martian atmosphere and analyze methane and other traces of gases present there, as they may be evidence of life or geological activity. In 2018, NASA sent the Insight probe to study the interior of the Red Planet using very sophisticated geophysical instruments. The spacecraft is capable of detecting Mars’ formation processes, as well as measuring the planet’s “vital signs” specifically through seismology, heat flow measurements and precision tracking. This mission also includes cameras on board the spacecraft. The Insight spacecraft is able to use a mechanism that allows it to dig deeper and deeper into the ground to measure how heat flows under the Martian surface. In this way, scientists will seek to know more about the composition of the planet Mars and how it has evolved over time [5].
In 2020, China launched the Tianwen-1 mission and, in February 2021, became part of the group of nations that managed to place a probe in Mars orbit. The mission includes an orbital probe, a stationary lander and a Zhurong rover, which is part of China’s Tianwen 1 Mars mission that landed on Utopia Planitia in May 2021 and aims to study the geology of Planet Mars, as well as learn more about what lies beneath the Martian surface. The Zhurong rover is designed to study the current and ancient presence of water, the internal structure of the planet Mars, the identification of minerals and different types of rocks on the surface, and the analysis of the environment in the atmosphere of Mars. Also in 2020, the UAE’s Hope Mars probe was launched with the aim of studying the Martian atmosphere, including the Martian climate system throughout the year. The Hope Mars spacecraft has a camera sensitive to optical and ultraviolet wavelengths and a spectrometer adjusted to infrared and ultraviolet light designed to make simultaneous measurements. Thus, scientists will be able to join these data, crossing them, since they will correspond to the same instants in which they were collected [5].
NASA sent the Perseverance rover to Mars in 2021, a vehicle built to drive in rough extraterrestrial terrain and driven by remote control from Earth with the main objective of determining the potential for ancient life on this planet [6]. In addition to the Perseverance rover, the Ingenuity helicopter was sent to Mars for an unprecedented demonstration of autonomous flight technology on another planet. On April 19, 2021, NASA’s Ingenuity Helicopter became the first aircraft in history to make a powered and controlled flight on another planet. Ingenuity achieved a feat of space exploration previously considered impossible, which was to fly on the planet Mars. The Perseverance rover searches for signs of habitable conditions on Mars, as well as looking for microbial life that may have existed when there was water there.
From what is known about Mars, this planet does not show any evidence of having a global structured magnetic field similar to Earth’s that protects us from cosmic rays and solar winds and this absence may have been largely responsible for the loss of the Martian atmosphere [7 ][9]. Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago, but has points of locally induced magnetism [8][9]. Mars does not have a global magnetic field to guide charged particles entering the atmosphere, but it does have multiple umbrella-shaped magnetic fields, mostly in the southern hemisphere, that are remnants of a global magnetic field that decayed billions of years ago. Compared to Earth, Mars’ atmosphere is very thin. Martian soil is slightly alkaline and contains elements such as magnesium, sodium, potassium and chlorine that are nutrients found on Earth and necessary for plant growth. Surface temperatures on Mars range from −143 °C (in winter on the polar ice caps) to maximums of +35 °C (in equatorial summer). Mars has the biggest dust storms in the Solar System. These can range from a storm over a small area to massive storms covering the entire planet. They tend to occur when Mars is closest to the Sun as its global temperature increases.
It is also known that liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to the low atmospheric pressure, which is about 100 times weaker than that of Earth. The two Martian ice caps appear to be made largely of water [7]. The volume of water frozen in the south polar ice sheet, if melted, would be enough to cover the entire surface of the planet to a depth of 11 meters. There was the detection of the mineral jarosite (hydrated sulfate of iron and potassium formed by the oxidation of iron sulfides), which forms only in the presence of acidic water, demonstrating that water once existed on Mars. The loss of water from Mars to space results from transport of water into the upper atmosphere, where it is dissociated to hydrogen and escapes the planet due to its weak gravity. Mars has Earth-like seasons due to the similar inclinations of the two planets’ rotation axes. The lengths of Martian seasons are about twice as long as those on Earth, as Mars is farther away from the Sun, which makes the Martian year about two Earth years long.
All this effort that is being carried out to explore the planet Mars aims at its colonization in the future. NASA intends to send humans on missions to Mars by 2030, but faces 7 major challenges [10]. There are some challenges that may delay or hinder the mission of putting humans to live on Mars until 2030. The first challenge would consist of the difficulty for human beings to stay on the surface of Mars due to the almost non-existent atmosphere on Mars, which, because of cosmic radiation and the solar winds, would be unprotected and could develop cancer. An alternative would be for humans to stay underground on Mars. The second challenge is that the geology of Mars makes it difficult to plant plant species. The third challenge to human life on Mars is that there is too much fine dust from frequent dust storms. Those who live underground on Mars have to go to the surface to clean the dust on the rovers from time to time, because sandstorms prevent the batteries from being recharged using solar energy. In addition, this dust, due to its extremely fine thickness, easily infiltrates space suits and can affect the lives of astronauts.
The fourth major challenge stems from the fact that, for every 2 kilograms of objects, 130 kilograms of rocket are needed, which restricts the amount of material sent on each flight and exponentially increases the cost of missions. Most rockets carry a payload of 1.5% of their full size. By payload we mean people and objects. The fifth challenge to human life on Mars is represented by the fact that the trip to Mars still takes about eight months, which implies a large amount of fuel, food and support material for the mission teams, unlike the Moon, for example, it only takes 3 days. The sixth challenge requires astronauts to be meticulously tested and chosen to withstand the physical and social challenges that this trip entails. Finally, the seventh challenge stems from the fact that Mars always has a negative temperature that would require thinking about creating a human genome capable of making human beings capable of withstanding extreme conditions and surviving on Mars. There are no organic organisms on the surface of Mars, but there may be underground and there is no guarantee that they will not compete with the organisms that can be sent there from Earth. The fact that there is no life on Mars demonstrates that the conditions for human beings to survive there are not yet met. Mars 2030 still seems a distant reality and before thinking about living there, we have to know more about this planet.
NASA is developing 6 technologies to send humans to Mars [11]. These 6 technologies are as follows: 1) Powerful propulsion systems to get us faster to Mars and from there to Earth. Astronauts bound for Mars will travel about 225.3 million kilometers into deep space. Advances in propulsion capabilities are the key to getting to our destination as quickly and safely as possible; 2) Inflatable heat shield to land astronauts on other planets. The largest rover to land on Mars is the size of a car, and sending humans to Mars will require a much larger spacecraft. New technologies will allow heavier spacecraft to enter the Martian atmosphere, get closer to the surface and land close to where astronauts want to explore; 3) High-tech Martian spacesuits. Spacesuits are essentially customized spaceships for astronauts. NASA’s latest spacesuit is so high-tech that its modular design is designed to be evolved for use anywhere in space; 4) Martian house and laboratory on wheels. To reduce the number of items needed to land on the surface of Mars, NASA will combine the first Martian home and rover into a single rover complete with breathable air; 5) Uninterrupted power. Just as we use electricity to charge our devices on Earth, astronauts will need a reliable source of supply to explore Mars. The system will need to be lightweight and able to function regardless of its location or the climate on the Red Planet; and, 6) Laser communications to send more information to Earth. Human missions to Mars can use lasers to stay in contact with Earth. A laser communication system on Mars could send massive amounts of information and data in real time, including high-definition imagery and video feeds.
The challenges of colonizing Mars are immense, but every effort must be made to make this planet an alternative habitable place for humans in the face of threats to their survival on planet Earth with the occurrence of catastrophic climate change and the eruption of volcanoes that could lead the extinction of human beings as has occurred in the past, the collision of solar system planets and orphan planets with planet Earth, the emission of gamma rays by supernova stars that could lead to the extinction of life on Earth as has occurred in the past, and the continuous distancing of the Moon in relation to Earth and its catastrophic consequences on Earth’s climate that require escape to Mars [1][2][3]. The challenges to colonizing Mars need to be overcome to make this planet a more immediate escape alternative for humanity when needed. Known for having ambitious plans, Elon Musk, who created SpaceX in 2002, whose dream is to colonize Mars by 2030, recognizes that building a self-sufficient city on Mars will not be a simple task. Elon Musk has admitted that he envisions Testa factories on Mars within 40 years. He believes that 1 million people could live there by 2050. The start of sending humans to the neighboring planet would be in 2026 [12].
Significant scientific and technological advances need to be developed to provide the conditions for humanity to colonize celestial bodies in the solar system and beyond [2]. The inventions that may occur in the future will be fundamental to enable the increase of knowledge about the Universe in order to contribute towards humanity being able to overcome the threats to its existence represented by the collision on planet Earth of bodies coming from outer space (comets, asteroids, planets of the solar system and orphan planets), by the emission of cosmic rays, especially gamma rays with the explosion of supernova stars, by the continuous distancing of the Moon in relation to the Earth, by the death of the Sun, by the collision of the Andromeda and Milky Way galaxies and by the end of the Universe. The colonization of Mars represents the first step.
For humans to carry out long-distance space missions, it is necessary to find more advanced forms of rocket propulsion to reach distances of hundreds or thousands of light-years, given that, according to scientists, current chemical rockets are limited by the maximum speed of exhaust gases. Other alternatives proposed by scientists would consist of the use of nuclear thermal propulsion, of a solar/ion engine as a new form of rocket propulsion, as well as the creation of a fusion reactor in which a rocket extracts hydrogen from interstellar space and liquefies it [2]. It is also necessary to develop space capsules capable of protecting human beings in space travel and to design space probes to carry out research in possible habitable places in the solar system such as Mars, Titan (Saturn’s moon) and Callisto (Jupiter’s moon) or on the exoplanet Proxima b situated in the Alpha Centauri system and on an exoplanet in a closer galaxy such as the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy located 25,000 light years from Earth, as well as developing space colonies for use by humans outside Earth.
NASA wants to test a nuclear-powered rocket by 2027 [13]. Advanced nuclear thermal propulsion technology will allow the spacecraft to be faster, have a shorter travel time, and will also enable faster delivery of cargo to a new moon base and robotic missions even further afield. With the help of this technology, astronauts will be able to travel to and from deep space faster than ever before. The new propulsion has the potential to enable manned missions to Mars. According to NASA, a thermal rocket powered by nuclear energy can be three to four times more efficient than conventional ones and reduce the travel time to the red planet, that is, from 8 months to 2 months. Ion engine took a ship to the edge of the Solar System [14]. The probe is the first space exploration mission to use an ion engine instead of conventional thrusters, powered by chemical reactions. The ion propulsion system will be adopted in the next generation of NASA spacecraft. The thruster uses electrical energy to create magnetically charged fuel particles, usually in the form of xenon gas, and accelerates these particles to extremely high speeds. Whether energy from the Sun or from the atom, it would be used to ionize (or positively charge) an inert gas such as xenon or krypton. The accelerated ions would be pushed out of the thruster, propelling the spacecraft forward. If at first the spacecraft would advance slowly, over time the acceleration would be gradual and inexorable, reaching a speed close to that of light, making it possible for a human being to reach nearby stars, such as Alpha Centauri, 4.3 light-years away.
Bussard ramjet propulsion is another method of propulsion for spacecraft that could accelerate to close to the speed of light, and would be a very efficient type of craft. The most obvious fuel source, which was proposed by Bussard, is hydrogen fusion, as hydrogen is believed to be the most common component element of interstellar gas. An electromagnetic field could attract positive ions from the interstellar medium and force them into the ramjet engine [15]. Super-fast space travel close to the speed of light would be fatal for humans, according to Edelstein and Edelstein’s publication in Natural Science, which states that the hydrogen in any aircraft capable of traveling at the speed of light would also prevent it from making the trip at that speed because, as the ship’s speed approached the speed of light, interstellar hydrogen H would transform into intense radiation that would quickly kill passengers and destroy electronic instruments [16]. Furthermore, the loss of energy from the ionizing radiation passing through the outside of the spacecraft would represent an increasing increase in heat that would require large energy dumps to cool the spacecraft. Even if it is possible to create a ship capable of traveling at speeds close to the speed of light, it would not be able to transport people. There is a natural speed limit imposed by safe levels of radiation due to hydrogen which means that human beings cannot travel at more than half the speed of light unless they want a quick, immediate death.
An important issue to be clarified concerns the proof of the existence of Nemesis, which would form a binary star with the Sun, which would be located in a position at least seventeen times farther from the Sun than Neptune, the last planet in the solar system that could throw by its gravitational action asteroids located in the “Kuiper Belt” and comets located in the “Oort Cloud” towards Earth and causing great extinctions of life on our planet. Faced with the threat of the collision of comets coming from the “Oort Cloud” with the planet Earth and the collision of asteroids with the planet Earth coming from the “Kuiper Belt”, it is of fundamental importance to send space probes to understand the gravitational forces exerted by the “Oort Cloud” and the “Kuiper Belt” located beyond the planet Neptune to evaluate the possibility of comets and asteroids being thrown in all directions, many of which could hit the Earth, thus causing great extinctions of life on our planet [1 ][2][3].
Additionally, in-depth research into the nature of dark matter and dark energy that make up 96% of the entire Universe needs to be carried out to understand how it works, as well as on the existence or not of parallel universes. The Universe is made up of 73% dark matter and 23% dark energy, while the rest is made up of galaxies, stars, planets, etc. which corresponds to 4% of the entire Universe. Without knowing the essence of dark matter and dark energy we will not understand how the Universe operates in its entirety. Another issue to be clarified concerns the existence or not of a multiverse or parallel universes because the elucidation of their existence opens the possibility of human beings surviving with the end of our Universe heading towards other parallel universes. The idea that we live in a “multiverse” composed of an infinite number of parallel universes has, for many years, been considered a scientific possibility. The challenge is to find a way to test this theory and find out if it is possible for humans to enter parallel universes if they exist. Finally, another issue to be clarified concerns the development of the final theory or theory of everything, that is, the unified field theory that would seek to explain and connect in a single theoretical structure all physical phenomena by joining quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity in a single theoretical and mathematical treatment. The unified field theory would help science to verify the consequences of using advanced technologies for the benefit of humanity. There is still no accepted unified field theory, and this subject remains an open field for research [1][1][3].
REFERENCES
1. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. A humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência. São Paulo: Editora Dialética, 2021.
2. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. A escalada da ciência e da tecnologia ao longo da história e sua contribuição ao progresso e à sobrevivência da humanidade. Curitiba: Editora CRV, 2022.
3. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. How to protect human beings from threats to their existence and avoid the extinction of humanity. Chișinău, Republic of Moldova, Europe: Generis Publishing, 2023.
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* Fernando Alcoforado, awarded the medal of Engineering Merit of the CONFEA / CREA System, member of the Bahia Academy of Education, of the SBPC- Brazilian Society for the Progress of Science and of IPB- Polytechnic Institute of Bahia, engineer and doctor in Territorial Planning and Regional Development from the University of Barcelona, college professor (Engineering, Economy and Administration) and consultant in the areas of strategic planning, business planning, regional planning, urban planning and energy systems, was Advisor to the Vice President of Engineering and Technology at LIGHT S.A. Electric power distribution company from Rio de Janeiro, Strategic Planning Coordinator of CEPED- Bahia Research and Development Center, Undersecretary of Energy of the State of Bahia, Secretary of Planning of Salvador, is the author of the books Globalização (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC- O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem Mundial (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2000), Os condicionantes do desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de doutorado. Universidade de Barcelona,http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globalização e Desenvolvimento (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século XX e Objetivos Estratégicos na Era Contemporânea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The Necessary Conditions of the Economic and Social Development- The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2010), Amazônia Sustentável- Para o progresso do Brasil e combate ao aquecimento global (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2011), Os Fatores Condicionantes do Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2012), Energia no Mundo e no Brasil- Energia e Mudança Climática Catastrófica no Século XXI (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2015), As Grandes Revoluções Científicas, Econômicas e Sociais que Mudaram o Mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2016), A Invenção de um novo Brasil (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2017), Esquerda x Direita e a sua convergência (Associação Baiana de Imprensa, Salvador, 2018), Como inventar o futuro para mudar o mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2019), A humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência (Editora Dialética, São Paulo, 2021), A escalada da ciência e da tecnologia e sua contribuição ao progresso e à sobrevivência da humanidade (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2022), a chapter in the book Flood Handbook (CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida United States, 2022) and How to protect human beings from threats to their existence and avoid the extinction of humanity (Generis Publishing, Europe, Republic of Moldova, Chișinău, 2023).
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