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THE ADVENT OF ARTIFICIAL SUPER INTELLIGENCE AND ITS IMPACTS

Fernando Alcoforado*

Since the development of the digital computer in the 1940s, it has been demonstrated that computers can be programmed to perform very complex tasks – such as, for example, proving mathematical theorems or playing chess – with great proficiency. Still, despite continued progress in the speed and memory capacity of computer processing, there are still no programs that can combine human capacity in broader domains or in tasks that require a lot of knowledge. On the other hand, some programs have reached the performance levels of specialists in carrying out certain specific tasks, so that artificial intelligence in this limited sense is found in applications as diverse as, for example, medical diagnosis and speech recognition.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is already being widely used in production systems. In the management of productive systems, Business Intelligence and Big Data are used. Business Intelligence contemplates the use of data collection, organization, analysis, action and monitoring that requires robust software to make better decisions and to know if the investments made are bringing good results. Big Data is a computing model focused on processing and storing information in high volume and can be applied to the most diverse environments, public and private, that seek to ensure agility and efficiency in data processing. The Artificial Intelligence algorithms run in the Big Data environment and establish an effective communication between these two fields, which are, at the same time, different and complementary.

Artificial Intelligence can replace human beings in production activities and can also increase their productivity to the maximum. According to data presented by Accenture in one of its surveys, by 2035, Artificial Intelligence will contribute to an increase of up to 40% in the productivity of the industrial sector, reducing costs and increasing the production of manufactures around the globe. A neural network of an Artificial Intelligence system is capable of analyzing more than a billion data in a few seconds, being an incredible tool to support a decision maker within a company, thus guaranteeing the best option among the possible ones. As the data collected is constantly updated, the Artificial Intelligence ​​systems always update their results as well, allowing managers to have access to recent information on variations that have occurred in the company’s operating market.

In addition to their use in production systems, the main applications of artificial intelligence in management, at the moment, are the following: 1) Chatbots that use language to talk to people in a natural and pre-programmed way, recognize names and phone numbers and reproduce human behavior; 2) Management applications that are useful to identify which employees are performing tasks more efficiently and, with this type of tool, to assist managers in decision making; 3) Personal assistant that is used to schedule meetings, schedules and daily activities, one of the best known being Siri present in Apple products; 4) Security mechanisms both in digital attacks and in everyday situations, such as events. In the digital part, the most common example is internet banking; 5) Predictions with machines equipped with artificial intelligence that can be used in marketing campaigns, for example, to predict different scenarios and possible results. From the captured data, the manager will have more information at his disposal to determine the paths that the company should follow according to the expected result of the strategy; 6) Sales and marketing to provide better quality customer service. Customization of customer service provides practicality and comfort. Machine learning is an application in which the system learns to act on its own without having to be programmed for the new function; 7) Teaching in which computer technology is used as a “teacher” that is available to students 24 hours a day.

In medicine, the main applications of artificial intelligence at the moment are the following: 1) AI-Assisted Robotic Surgery through which robots can analyze data from preoperative medical records to guide a surgeon’s instrument during surgery that is considered “minimally invasive” ”For patients; 2) Virtual Nursing Assistants in which virtual nurses will be available and can answer questions, monitor patients and provide quick answers; 3) Aid to the Judgment or Clinical Diagnosis in which algorithms examine medical records, habits and genetic information of patients; 4) Workflow and Administrative Tasks with the use of technologies that can help to order exams, prescribe medications and write notes in graphs; and, 5) Medical Image Analysis using an algorithm that can analyze 3D scans up to 1,000 times faster than is possible today.

In engineering, the main applications are as follows: 1) Routine tasks with the use of a robot capable of reproducing various human tasks on a construction site, such as handling construction materials and assembling structures systematically with millimeter precision with a rate of error close to zero; 2) Big Data, which is a technology that can be applied to analyze the situation of the work in the most diverse construction sites; 3) 3D printing to assemble precast and prefabricated structures; 4) Intelligent Buildings with Artificial Intelligence that, in addition to the physical structure design, makes the planning of an intelligent infrastructure, capable of facilitating users’ lives; 5) More efficient management with the use of Robot Process Automation (RPA), which is a robot created to manipulate digital systems, cross-check data and eliminate the errors that would happen if a person assumed this task; and, 6) Customer service to program customer service robots.

Machine learning is a field of computer science that gives computers the ability to learn without being explicitly programmed. Arthur Samuel, an American pioneer in the field of computer games and artificial intelligence, coined the term “machine learning” in 1959, while working at IBM. Machine learning is closely related to computational statistics (and often overlapping), which also focuses on creating predictions with computers. It has strong links with mathematical optimization, which provides methods, theory and fields of application to the field. In data analysis, machine learning is a method used to design complex models and algorithms that lend themselves to prediction. In commercial use, this is known as predictive analytics. These analytical models allow researchers, data scientists, engineers and analysts to “produce reliable and repeatable decisions and results” and discover “hidden insights” by learning historical relationships and trends in the data.

In 1950, British computer scientist Alan Turing was already speculating about the emergence of thinking machines in his work “Computing Machinery and Intelligence”, and the term “artificial intelligence” (AI) was coined in 1956 by the scientist John McCarthy. In the 1990s, the artificial intelligence community set aside a logic-based approach, which involved creating rules to guide a computer how to act, for a statistical approach, using databases and asking the machine to analyze and solve them problems on their own. Experts believe that machine intelligence will match that of humans by 2050, thanks to a new era in their ability to learn. Computers are already beginning to assimilate information from collected data. This means that we are creating machines that can teach themselves and also how to communicate by simulating human speech, as with smartphones and their virtual assistant systems.

Thanks to advances in artificial intelligence, the business world is facing huge transformations. It is a new era in which the fundamental rules that regulated the activities of organizations are being rewritten. Artificial intelligence systems do not just mean automating many processes to make them more efficient. These Artificial intelligence systems are making the world go through a fundamental transition with machines developing beyond their historic role as a tool by becoming “self-employed workers”. As a result, AI systems are therefore changing the true nature of the work that is requiring management of operations with machines and workers to be processed quite differently from the past.

In recent years, we have seen surprising progress in areas such as independent learning, forecasting, autonomous navigation, computer vision and video gameplay. Computers can now trade shares on the order of milliseconds, automated cars are increasingly appearing on our streets and artificially intelligent assistants have invaded our homes. The coming years will present us with even more advances, with Artificial Super Intelligence through machines that can learn from their own experiences, adapt to new situations and understand abstractions and analogies. Human-level machine intelligence has a good chance of being developed until the middle of the 21st century, which can result in Artificial Super Intelligence. Artificial Super Intelligence will be the first technology to potentially surpass humans in all dimensions. Until now, human beings have had a monopoly on decision-making and therefore have control over everything. With Artificial Super Intelligence, this can end. A wide range of consequences can occur, including extremely good consequences and consequences as bad as the extinction of the human species.

Even if Artificial Super Intelligence produces benefits for humanity, there is a risk that it will be used for evil and not for the good of humanity. The immediate consequence of the progress of artificial intelligence is the rise of unemployment. This negative social effect is already happening and is inevitable because it results from economic forces that are out of control. Artificial intelligence is positive for the capitalist who will use it to face his competitors in a more competitive way, since it would provide, among other advantages, the increase of his productivity and the reduction of his costs. However, it would also be extremely negative for the capitalist system because it tends to reduce the income available to the mass of workers excluded from production, thus contributing to the fall in the demand for products and services and, consequently, the profits earned. Its impact on society would be devastating with mass unemployment resulting from its widespread use. The risk that Artificial Super Intelligence is used to the detriment of humanity is very great because it can be used for evil in an act of despair by the capital holders to repress social movements as a weapon to maintain at all costs the dying capitalist system which will end to an end in the middle of the 21st century.

There is also a risk that the Super Intelligence Artificial will be used by the great powers to develop armaments more powerful than the current ones to defend their interests and impose their will on the world scene. If the great powers embark on an arms race with the use of Artificial Super Intelligence against rival nations, an armed Artificial Super  Intelligence could get out of control, either in peacetime or during a war. An Artificial Super Intelligence could intentionally end humanity by destroying our planet’s atmosphere or biosphere with self-replicating nanotechnology, or it could fire all of our nuclear weapons, unleash a robot apocalypse like in the Terminator, or unleash some powers of physics that we do not even know about.

Artificial Super Intelligence can also represent the extinction of the human race, according to scientist Stephen Hawking, who published an article addressing this issue on May 1, 2014 in The Independent. Hawking said that technologies are developing at such a dizzying pace that they will become uncontrollable to the point of endangering humanity. Hawking concludes: today, there would be time to stop; tomorrow it would be too late.

The Artificial Super Intelligence will, however, be able to make a decisive contribution towards scientific and technological advances, aiming to provide humanity with the necessary resources to face the threats coming from outer space and seek solutions for human beings to develop technologies capable of taking them to new habitats in the solar system and out of it in search of its survival with the increase in the distance from the Moon in relation to the Earth, with the collision of the Andromeda and Milky Way galaxies, the death of the Sun and the end of the Universe in which we live. With machines smarter than we are, with Artificial Super intelligence, humanity will be able to use them to solve scientific and technological problems that ensure the survival of the human species even with the end of the Universe in which we live by paving the way for parallel universes. If artificial brains ever surpass the intelligence of human brains, then this new superintelligence can become very powerful. Humanity’s fate would therefore become dependent on the actions of these superintelligent machines.

Until now, human beings have had a monopoly on decision-making and therefore have control over everything. With Artificial Super Intelligence, this can end. Artificial Superintelligence has the potential to profoundly transform human society in a positive way, but also in a negative way if it gets out of hand and turns against humanity. The short-term impact of Artificial Super Intelligence depends on who controls it, but the long-term impact depends on whether it can really be controlled. Bostrom states in his book Superinteligência (Super intelligence) that Artificial Super Intelligence poses a risk that threatens the premature extinction of intelligent life on Earth, or the permanent and drastic destruction of its potential for a desirable future development [BOSTROM, Nick. Superinteligência (Superintelligence). Rio: DarkSide Books, 2018].

Bostrom explained that Artificial Super Intelligence requires that better control mechanisms be developed. Bostrom says that we will need to have these control mechanisms before creating smart systems by attracting the leading experts in mathematics and computer science into this field. He suggests that is necessary a strong research collaboration between researchers of the Artificial Super Intelligence security and Artificial Super Intelligence development, and for all parties involved to incorporate the Common Good Principle into all long-term AI projects. This is a unique technology, he said, that must be developed for the common good of humanity.

* Fernando Alcoforado, 80, awarded the medal of Engineering Merit of the CONFEA / CREA System, member of the Bahia Academy of Education, engineer and doctor in Territorial Planning and Regional Development by the University of Barcelona, university professor and consultant in the areas of strategic  planning, business planning, regional planning and planning of energy systems, is author of the books Globalização (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC- O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem Mundial (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2000), Os condicionantes do desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de doutorado. Universidade de Barcelona,http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globalização e Desenvolvimento (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século XX e Objetivos Estratégicos na Era Contemporânea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The Necessary Conditions of the Economic and Social Development- The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2010), Amazônia Sustentável- Para o progresso do Brasil e combate ao aquecimento global (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2011), Os Fatores Condicionantes do Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2012), Energia no Mundo e no Brasil- Energia e Mudança Climática Catastrófica no Século XXI (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2015), As Grandes Revoluções Científicas, Econômicas e Sociais que Mudaram o Mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2016), A Invenção de um novo Brasil (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2017),  Esquerda x Direita e a sua convergência (Associação Baiana de Imprensa, Salvador, 2018, em co-autoria) and Como inventar o futuro para mudar o mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2019).

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COMMENT FAIRE FACE AU PROGRES TECHNOLOGIQUE ET A LA FIN DE L’EMPLOI AU BRESIL

Fernando Alcoforado *

Des chercheurs de l’Université d’Oxford ont publié en 2013 une étude détaillée de l’impact de l’informatique sur l’emploi aux États-Unis, en tenant compte des récents progrès de l’apprentissage automatique et des robots mobiles. Les chercheurs ont conclu que 47% des emplois actuels présentaient un risque élevé d’automatisation dans les années et les décennies à venir et 19%, un risque moyen. Ils estiment que seulement un tiers des travailleurs actuels ne seront pas remplacés par des machines intelligentes au cours des deux prochaines décennies (FORD, Martin. Rise of the robots. New York: Basic Books, 2015).

Nous vivons sans aucun doute une époque définie par le changement fondamental qui opère entre les travailleurs et les machines et qui met en échec l’une des hypothèses de base sur la technologie selon laquelle les machines sont des instruments permettant d’accroître la productivité des travailleurs. Au lieu de cela, les machines se transforment en travailleurs. Face à la perspective de remplacer les travailleurs par des robots, les solutions présentées pour atténuer les effets du chômage généré par les avancées technologiques dans les limites actuelles du développement du capitalisme sont liées à l’adoption de l’économie créative, de l’économie sociale et solidaire et du programme de transfert de revenu. Ces solutions fourniraient également les conditions nécessaires pour faire face à la sous-utilisation actuelle de 27,6 millions de travailleurs au Brésil.

L’économie créative fait référence aux activités à potentiel socioéconomique qui traitent de la créativité, du savoir et de l’information. Pour le comprendre, il est nécessaire de garder à l’esprit que les entreprises de ce secteur associent création, production et commercialisation d’actifs créatifs culturels et d’innovation tels que la mode, l’art, les médias numériques, la publicité, le journalisme, la photographie et l’architecture. En général, les entreprises de ce secteur misent sur le talent et la créativité pour exister efficacement. Ils sont répartis dans 13 domaines différents: 1) architecture; 2) la publicité; 3) conception; 4) arts et antiquités; 5) artisanat; 6) la mode; 7) cinéma et vidéo; 8) télévision; 9) édition et publications; 10) arts de la scène; 11) radio; 12) logiciels de loisirs; et 13) musique. Il est important de dire qu’en mettant l’accent sur la créativité, l’imagination et l’innovation comme caractéristique principale, l’économie créative ne se limite pas aux produits, aux services ou aux technologies. Il englobe également les processus, les modèles économiques, les modèles de gestion, etc. [DESCOLA. A economia criativa no mundo moderno ( L’économie créative dans le monde moderne). Disponible sur le site  <https://descola.org/drops/a-economia-criativa-no-mundo-moderno/&gt;, 2016].

L’économie sociale et solidaire est un nouveau modèle de développement économique, social, politique et environnemental qui génère différents types de travail et de revenus dans plusieurs secteurs, que ce soit les banques communautaires, les coopératives de crédit, les coopératives d’agriculture familiale, commerce équitable, clubs d’échange, etc. L’économie sociale et solidaire est une nouvelle façon d’organiser le travail et les activités économiques en général. Elle se présente comme une alternative importante pour l’inclusion des travailleurs sur le marché du travail, leur offrant une nouvelle opportunité grâce à l’autogestion. Sur la base de l’économie sociale et solidaire, il est possible de récupérer les entreprises de la masse des faillites et de leur donner une continuité, avec un nouveau mode de production, dans lequel la maximisation du profit cesse d’être l’objectif principal, donnant lieu à la maximisation de la quantité. et qualité du travail. L’économie sociale et solidaire représente 10% du PIB et 12,7% de l’emploi en France (LACROIX, Géraldine et SLITINE, Romain. L’économie sociale et solidaire, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2016). Au Brésil, l’économie sociale et solidaire représente 1% du PIB [REDE BRASIL ATUAL. Com autogestão, economia solidária já representa 1% do PIB no Brasil (Avec autogestion, l’économie solidaire représente déjà 1% du PIB au Brésil). Disponible sur le site <http://www.redebrasilatual.com.br/economia/2015/08/economia-solidaria-ja-representa-1-do-pib-no-brasil-3696.html&gt;, 2015].

Si nous acceptons l’idée qu’il est irréaliste d’arrêter l’automatisation et qu’il est peu probable que davantage d’investissements dans l’éducation et la formation résolvent le problème du chômage, Martin Ford estime que la solution la plus efficace consiste à adopter une politique de garantie de revenus pour les travailleurs (FORD, Martin. Rise of the robots. New York: Basic Books, 2015). Cette idée n’est pas nouvelle. Friedrich August von Hayek, économiste et philosophe autrichien, plus tard naturalisé britannique, considéré comme l’un des plus grands représentants de l’École autrichienne de la pensée économique, était le promoteur de cette idée lorsqu’il publia entre 1973 et 1979 son ouvrage Law, Legislation and Liberty (Routledge, 1988).

En résumé, la politique de garantie de revenus des travailleurs concerne le revenu universel de base, qui est un système similaire à celui de l’assistance sociale par laquelle tous les citoyens d’un pays, qu’ils soient employés ou non, recevrait du gouvernement, un montant mensuel fixe. La différence est que le revenu universel de base serait un substitut unique de toutes les allocations d’assistance sociale et que le salaire serait versé sans condition, sans aucune obligation de la part du citoyen. L’objectif est de permettre à tous d’avoir une meilleure qualité de vie et donc de meilleures opportunités. C’est un moyen de lutter contre les inégalités de revenus et de garantir à chaque citoyen suffisamment d’argent pour vivre au-dessus du seuil de pauvreté. Le programme néolibéral de transfert de revenus des gouvernements Lula et Dilma Rousseff au Brésil, le Bolsa Família, est un exemple de l’application de la politique de garantie de revenus de Hayek.

Malheureusement, le futur gouvernement Bolsonaro ne présente aucune solution pour faire face au chômage actuel de 27,6 millions de travailleurs brésiliens sous-utilisés avec la mise en œuvre d’un programme de travaux publics d’infrastructures économiques (énergie, transports et communications) et d’infrastructures sociales (éducation, santé, logement et assainissement de base) avec la participation du gouvernement et du secteur privé et ne présentant aucune initiative en faveur de l’adoption de l’économie créative, de l’économie sociale et solidaire et du programme de transfert de revenus pour faire face au chômage qui en résulte de l´avance technologique. Il n’y a pas non plus d’initiative visant à rendre le système éducatif brésilien capable de doter ses travailleurs des compétences requises par le monde du travail, lequel se caractérisera par la présence de machines intelligentes.

Il y a tout lieu de croire que les robots devraient être largement utilisés dans les activités de production en général, ce qui rend impératif de préparer les êtres humains à utiliser ces machines intelligentes sur le marché du travail. Le grand défi de l’éducation au Brésil consiste non seulement à surmonter les faiblesses du système actuel, mais surtout à faire face aux changements rapides qui se produisent dans le monde du travail grâce aux progrès technologiques, principalement dus à l’impact de l’intelligence artificielle qui est semblable à l’intelligence humaine présentée par des mécanismes ou des logiciels. Les experts estiment que l’intelligence des machines sera équivalente à celle des humains d’ici 2050, grâce à une nouvelle ère dans leur capacité d’apprentissage. Cela signifie que nous créons des machines qui peuvent s’enseigner et aussi pour communiquer en simulant la parole humaine.

Considérant que l’un des objectifs du système éducatif d’un pays est de planifier la préparation et le recyclage des personnes pour le marché du travail, il incombe aux planificateurs des systèmes éducatifs brésiliens d’identifier le rôle de l’homme dans le monde du travail dans un avenir avec des machines intelligentes pour mener à bien une révolution dans l’enseignement à tous les niveaux, y compris la qualification des enseignants et la structuration des unités d’enseignement, afin de préparer leurs étudiants à un monde du travail où les gens devront faire face à des machines intelligentes. Les unités d’enseignement à tous les niveaux doivent être profondément restructurées pour atteindre ces objectifs.

Pour révolutionner le système éducatif brésilien, il est nécessaire de préparer l’enseignant à jouer un nouveau rôle. Le rôle de l’enseignant est déterminant pour qu’à travers l’éducation, un nouveau type d’homme qualifié pour le monde du travail soit créé, conscient et bien préparé pour transformer le monde dans lequel nous vivons à son avantage. Le rôle de l’enseignant devrait être celui d’un gestionnaire de processus riche en apprentissages significatifs et non celui d’envoyer simplement des informations en classe. L’enseignant doit jouer le rôle de médiateur dans le processus d’apprentissage des élèves à l’aide de technologies simples, telles que celles sur le téléphone portable, une caméra à illustrer, un programme gratuit permettant de rassembler les images et de compter sur elles des histoires intéressanteset et les étudiants être auteurs, protagonistes de leur processus d’apprentissage.

Dans son programme de gouvernement, Jair Bolsonaro ne présente aucune stratégie qui conduirait à une révolution dans le système éducatif brésilien. L’accent est mis sur l’élimination de la liberté académique en essayant d’empêcher l’enseignant de discuter de conceptions politiques ou idéologiques en classe. Un autre objectif de Bolsonaro est qu’il est possible de faire plus avec les ressources actuelles et qu’il n’est pas nécessaire d’augmenter l’investissement dans l’éducation, ce qui est faux puisque l’investissement par élève au Brésil est le deuxième plus faible au monde. Nous devrions être inspirés par les politiques éducatives pratiquées au Japon, en Corée du Sud, en Finlande et en Suisse, qui sont les pays les plus avancés en matière d’éducation, afin de restructurer le système éducatif brésilien de l’enseignement préscolaire à l’enseignement supérieur.

* Fernando Alcoforado, 78 ans, titulaire de la Médaille du Mérite du système CONFEA / CREA, membre de l’Académie de l’Education de Bahia, ingénieur et docteur en planification territoriale et développement régional pour l’Université de Barcelone, professeur universitaire et consultant dans les domaines de la planification stratégique, planification d’entreprise, planification régionale et planification énergétique, il est l’auteur de 14 ouvrages traitant de questions comme la mondialisation et le développement, l’économie brésilienne, le réchauffement climatique et les changements climatiques, les facteurs qui conditionnent le développement économique et social, l’énergie dans le monde et les grandes révolutions scientifiques, économiques et sociales.

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LES CANDIDATS À LA PRÉSIDENCE DE LA RÉPUBLIQUE DU BRÉSIL ET LA DÉFENSE DE LA SOUVERAINETÉ NATIONALE

Fernando Alcoforado *

Pour qu’une nation soit souveraine, elle devrait avoir quatre caractéristiques: 1) être un pays unique et indivisible, c’est-à-dire qu’il n’ya pas deux États sur son territoire national; 2) il n’y a pas d’autre pouvoir dans le pays avec lequel il doit partager l’autorité de l’Etat; 3) être un pays indépendant économiquement, financièrement et technologiquement; et 4) être un pays indépendant dans le système international, qui ne dépend pas de toute puissance supranationale et se considère seulement lié par les règles du droit international résultant de traités conclus librement ou volontairement et expressément acceptées coutumes.

Le Brésil est pas une nation souveraine parce que, en dépit répondant aux caractéristiques 1 et 2 décrits ci-dessus, ne présente pas les caractéristiques 3 et 4. Le Brésil n´est pas un pays souverain parce que ce n’est pas un pays indépendant économique, financier et technologiquement  de l’extérieur (caractéristique 3), à savoir, le Brésil dépend du capital et de la technologie des entreprises multinationales opérant dans l’économie brésilienne, de capital du système financier international et de les pays importateurs avec la vente de produits et services brésiliens. Le Brésil n’est pas un pays souverain car ce n’est pas un pays indépendant dans le système international (caractéristique 4) dans lequel il agit subalterne par rapport aux grandes puissances sur la scène internationale.

Pour atteindre le statut de nation souveraine, le Brésil devrait d’abord devenir un pays économique, financier et technologiquement indépendant (caractère 3) et devenir ensuite un pays indépendant dans le système international (caractéristique 4). Pour devenir indépendant économiquement et financièrement, le Brésil devrait rompre avec la dépendance vis-à-vis des investissements étrangers directs et ne pas avoir besoin du financement d’organisations internationales pour réaliser l’épargne nationale destinée à l’investissement. Pour devenir indépendant sur le plan technologique, le Brésil devrait rompre avec la dépendance non seulement du capital mais aussi de la technologie étrangère. Au Brésil, Petrobras dans la technologie de l’exploration pétrolière, en particulier dans l’eau profonde, et Embraer dans la technologie de l’aviation sont quelques exemples de l’indépendance du Brésil dans le domaine technologique.

La réalisation de l’indépendance dans le système international dépend de la capacité du Brésil à devenir économiquement, financièrement et technologiquement indépendante, ainsi que de sa politique de défense. Certaines questions liées à la politique de défense de l’intégrité nationale contre les menaces extérieures telles que l’imposition de sanctions par l’ONU contre le Brésil dans le cas de violation des droits des peuples autochtones vivant dans le pays qui, sous le couvert de raisons humanitaires, il pourrait y avoir une intervention militaire des Nations Unies ou tout membre du Conseil de sécurité de prendre possession des ressources minérales et de la biodiversité existante dans l’Amazonie au Brésil comme cela est arrivé en Irak et en Libye lorsque les puissances occidentales ont saisi les champs de pétrole..

Une autre question liée à la défense de l’intégrité nationale concerne la restructuration de l’industrie de la défense brésilienne pour mettre fin à la dépendance du Brésil de l’extérieur, le renforcement de la Marine d’agir d’agir dans le contrôle et le policement des zones maritimes pour éviter la concentration des forces ennemies dans la mer territoriale du Brésil, afin d’éviter l’occupation de la région amazonienne, qui possède d’abondantes ressources minérales, de vastes ressources en eau et un énorme potentiel de la biodiversité par des puissances étrangères, protéger les plates-formes pétrolières où se trouve le pré-sel (dans la gamme qui va des Santos a Vitoria) situé dans les eaux relevant de la juridiction brésilienne et les lignes de communication ainsi que d’être présents dans les grands bassins fluviaux du fleuve Amazone au nord et des rivières Paraguay et Paraná au sud.

Une autre question liée à la défense de l’intégrité nationale concerne le développement du potentiel de mobilisation militaire et nationale afin d’assurer la dissuasion et la capacité opérationnelle des forces armées, de promouvoir la coopération militaire des pays d’Amérique du Sud, l’intégration des bases industrielles de la défense, la surveillance et le contrôle des frontières terrestres et les eaux territoriales brésiliennes, en insistant sur la capacité de répondre rapidement à toute menace ou agression par la mobilité stratégique. La défense de l’intégrité nationale implique également l’utilisation efficace du potentiel des ressources naturelles dans le pays, le renforcement du marché brésilien avec l’adoption de politiques de répartition des revenus efficaces et la substitution des importations pour favoriser la croissance de l’industrie brésilienne et en conséquence, promouvoir le développement de l’économie brésilienne.

Aucun des candidats à la présidence présente une proposition relative à la défense de l’intégrité du Brésil face à des menaces extérieures. Le candidat qui se réunissent de meilleures conditions pour faire du Brésil économique indépendante, financière et de la technologie (caractéristique 3) serait Ciro Gomes, car il présente une proposition qui favorise la réactivation de l’économie brésilienne à considérer l’État comme un promoteur de la croissance économique et la mise en œuvre du plan national développement, en mettant l’accent sur la lutte contre la désindustrialisation du pays. Il est positive la proposition de Ciro Gomes pour établir une limite pour le paiement de la dette intérieure de l’Etat et d’établir un plafond pour toutes les dépenses pour permettre la disponibilité des ressources publiques pour l’investissement, ainsi que sa proposition d’utiliser 200 milliards de dollars américains des réserves internationales du Brésil pour payer 9% de la dette intérieure du pays.

Il est positive la proposition Ciro Gomes contraire à la privatisation de Eletrobras et l’adoption d’une politique pour le secteur pétrolier qui prévoit l’application du pourcentage ci-dessus pour le partage du droit pour l’exploration de pétrole et de gaz dans le pré-sel, l’expropriation de tous les champs pétroliers vendus aux enchères à des entreprises étrangères au sein du gouvernement Temer et Petrobras profit limitation de 3%, et changer la façon dont la gestion de l’entreprise. Il est tout à fait juste sa proposition de suspension de l’accord entre Embraer et Boeing qui conduirait à la dénationalisation finale de Embraer et de mettre en cause la politique d’autonomie productive et technologique dans le domaine de la défense du Brésil, would blesser l’industrie brésilienne qui serait affectée par la réduction des achats intérieurs des pièces et des composants à réaliser en grande partie aux Etats-Unis par Boeing et de perdre le contrôle dans la gestion de l’entreprise dans son ensemble qui serait pris en charge par Boeing.

Fernando Haddad présente également des initiatives positives visant à la réactivation de l’économie brésilienne en particulier ceux ciblant les investissements publics plus élevés qui envisagent la reprise des projets inachevés, les investissements de Petrobras et le programme “Minha Casa  Minha Vida” de logements populaires. Il est positive l’initiative de Haddad avrec la formation de fonds d’investissement comprenant 10% des réserves internationales et la contribution des banques publiques et des débentures pour financer des projets d’infrastructure. Contrairement à Ciro Gomes, Fernando Haddad ne présente pas de propositions concrètes pour rompre avec le modèle néolibéral qui a conduit l’économie brésilienne à la catastrophe actuelle et ne pas des propositions qui contribuent à stopper le processus de dénationalisation et la désindustrialisation de l’économie brésilienne. Il est correct, cependant, son initiative de renforcement de Petrobras avec le régime de partage  dans la zone de pré-sel et la politique de contenu local.

Le fait grave et certainement les plus point faibles dans la proposition de Fernando Haddad concerne à la politique budgétaire qui réside dans le fait de ne pas proposer toute initiative visant à mettre un terme à la croissance rapide de la dette publique qui, sans y faire face, il n’y aura pas de solution à la crise financière de l’Etat au Brésil. Il est positif, cependant, la proposition de Fernando Haddad contrairement à la vente d’actifs de Petrobras, pas la privatisation de Petrobras et les ventes d’actifs possibles de Eletrobras et Petrobras. Il est tout à fait juste sa proposition de révision de l’accord entre Embraer et Boeing qui conduirait à la dénationalisation finale de Embraer et de mettre en cause la politique d’autonomie productive et technologique dans le domaine de la défense du Brésil, would blesser l’industrie brésilienne qui seraient affectés par la réduction des achats de pièces et composants internes à réaliser en grande partie aux Etats-Unis par Boeing et perdent le contrôle dans la gestion de l’entreprise dans son ensemble qui serait pris en charge par Boeing.

Il semble donc que Ciro Gomes et Fernando Haddad dans la présidence de la République would contribue à la réalisation de l’indépendance économique, financière et de la technologie du Brésil, en particulier Ciro Gomes que, contrairement à Fernando Haddad, propose un plan national pour le développement à court, moyen et à long terme. Les candidats Jair Bolsonaro et Geraldo Alckmin, ils sont les défenseurs du néo-libéralisme qui, en plus de n’a proposé aucun plan économique qui contribuera à résoudre la crise économique dans le pays et le chômage qui affecte la population brésilienne, laissant la direction de l’économie en charge des forces du marché, , préconise l’État minimum et la privatisation des entreprises publiques, y compris Petrobras. À son tour, Marina Silva ne propose pas de plan de développement national dans lequel le gouvernement est un inducteur du processus de développement. Sa proposition économique est généralement néolibérale, car elle permet aux marchés de dicter les prix, les taux d’intérêt et les taux de change. Il est positif, cependant, le projet de Marina Silva de ne pas privatiser Petrobras, Caixa Economica Federal et Banco do Brésil et d’adopter une politique énergétique intégrant les énergies renouvelables.

* Fernando Alcoforado, 78 ans, titulaire de la Médaille du Mérite du système CONFEA / CREA, membre de l’Académie de l’Education de Bahia, ingénieur et docteur en planification territoriale et développement régional pour l’Université de Barcelone, professeur universitaire et consultant dans les domaines de la planification stratégique, planification d’entreprise, planification régionale et planification énergétique, il est l’auteur de 13 ouvrages traitant de questions comme la mondialisation et le développement, l’économie brésilienne, le réchauffement climatique et les changements climatiques, les facteurs qui conditionnent le développement économique et social, l’énergie dans le monde et les grandes révolutions scientifiques, économiques et sociales.

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ANALYSIS OF THE ECONOMIC PROPOSALS OF THE MAJOR CANDIDATES TO THE PRESIDENCY OF THE REPUBLIC OF BRAZIL TO HELP THE VOTERS TO DECIDE RATIONALALLY

Fernando Alcoforado *

This article aims to show the differences of economic propositions among the candidates Jair Bolsonaro, Ciro Gomes, Fernando Haddad, Geraldo Alckmin and Marina Silva in order that the readers know their purposes and identify who will have real conditions to overcome the economic crisis deep in which the Brazilian nation is. Voters need to understand that without overcoming the serious economic problems, the remaining problems will not be solved in Brazil. Without underestimating the importance of other issues such as education, health, environment, security, etc., to guide the choice of the voter about the best candidate for the Presidency of the Republic, it is fundamental that the voter analyzes the economic proposals of the candidates to make the most choice appropriate. I hope that this article makes it possible to guide the readers’ decision about the choice of the candidate for the Presidency of the Republic who is better able to solve the gigantic economic problems of Brazil.

  1. Economic proposal of Jair Bolsonaro

Jair Bolsonaro does not propose any economic plan that contributes to solve the economic crisis of the Country and the unemployment that unhappy the Brazilian population. It is absurd Jair Bolsonaro to consider the Central Bank independent of the actions of the government characterizing its submission to the dictates of the financial system as is the case of the banks. It is absurd to consider that the prices practiced by Petrobras follow those of the international markets without taking into account the interests of the population. It is absurd to argue that men and women have different wages at the expense of women. It is absurd to consider that the individual labor contract prevails over the CLT (Consolidation of labor laws) to the detriment of the workers in their relationship with the bosses. It is absurd to reduce the size of the state so that the market imposes its will on the Brazilian economy to the detriment of the Brazilian people. However, the initiative to end the compulsory union tax is positive.

It is absurd for Jair Bolsonaro to maintain the flexible exchange rate, which means to give up control over the exchange rate by letting it evolve according to the interests of the market, that is, the financial system. The correct would be to adopt the fixed exchange rate whose value would be determined by the government in function of the national interests. It is a meaningless proposal, without nexus, that Jair Bolsonaro intends to reduce the tax burden by attracting “new money” to Brazil, by exploiting mineral resources, stimulating tourism and increasing public safety. It is absurd to be against the tax on large fortunes and inheritances that would be one of the alternatives of raising the tax revenue and reducing the tax burden on a large part of the population and on the companies. It is absurd for Jair Bolsonaro to seek to reduce public debt through privatizations, concessions, the sale of real estate properties of the Union, and the return of funds to official financial institutions which are insufficient when it should reduce the burden of public debt, which charges the Union’s budget by more than 50%, renegotiating with its creditors its lengthening in time. However, the initiative to simplify and unify federal taxes is positive.

Jair Bolsonaro’s initiative to cut spending is correct, but it is absurd to “privatize expeditiously” to reduce debts and reduce financial expenses when the correct thing would be to reduce the payment of public debt burdens by renegotiating with the creditors their lengthening in time for the government to dispose resources. It is an act detrimental to Brazil’s interests to privatize the state, among them Petrobras, given that if they are properly managed they can collaborate in favor of the economic and social development of Brazil. It is absurd to break Petrobras’ monopoly in the natural gas chain just as it was absurd that the oil monopoly was broken by the Fernando Henrique Cardoso government because the management of oil and natural gas should be unified. It is absurd to veto China only in the sale of state-owned enterprises.

  1. Economic proposal of Fernando Haddad

The initiatives proposed by the candidate are aimed at reactivating the Brazilian economy, especially those aimed at raising public investments, including the resumption of paralyzed works, investments by Petrobras and the “Minha Casa Minha Vida” program. It´s positive the initiative to increase consumption which is reinforced by the increase in investments in the “Bolsa Família” Program, the creation of lines of credit with interest and affordable terms to serve the families that are in the negative register and the implementation of the national program to support the activities of the social and solidarity economy. The initiative to create an investment fund composed of 10% of the international reserves and contributions from public banks and debentures to finance infrastructure projects and the multiplication of Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) is positive. Fernando Haddad rightly states that the state should be an inducer of growth and invest in infrastructure to generate 8 million jobs in 4 years. It´s correct the initiative of Fernando Haddad to revoke the pillars of neoliberal labor reform as a stimulus to pejotization, outsourcing and the prohibition of access to Labor Justice, to elaborate a new Labor Statute and to value trade unions and workers ‘and employers’ associations in guiding the preparation for professional qualification, as well as reorienting Petrobras’ current disastrous fuel price policy. All the initiatives adopted by Fernando Haddad are aimed at reactivating the Brazilian economy in the short term without presenting, in the meantime, a long-term Economic Plan that contributes to achieving sustained economic and social development. With the exception of the revocation of the neoliberal labor reform in force, Fernando Haddad does not present concrete proposals to break with the neoliberal model that led the Brazilian economy to the current disaster. Fernando Haddad does not present proposals that contribute to halt the process of denationalization and deindustrialization of the Brazilian economy.

Fernando Haddad’s proposals are positive in order to combat the recession, such as the repeal of the spending ceiling established by the Temer government, to raise consumption with the exemption of the payment of Income Tax for those who earn up to 5 minimum wages, conditioned to increase the tax rates for the super rich, to invest in urban mobility with the municipalization of Cide, a tax on fuels, to tax banks to combat the high levels of bank spread, to reduce the cost of credit to increase consumption and investment. It´s positive the proposed tax reform, which provides for the poorest to pay less, taxation of profits and dividends, the introduction of a progressive inheritance tax and the gradual implementation of Value Added Tax (VAT), which replaces the current tax structure indirect taxes, the introduction of progressive inheritance tax and the revitalization of public banks, especially BNDES, BB and CEF, and national development financing mechanisms. It´s positive the initiative to give the Central Bank a double mandate, which will reinforce inflation control, will also take on a commitment to employment based on a new indicator that guides the definition of the basic interest rate of the economy. The initiative to strengthen Petrobras is correct with the maintenance of the pre-salt sharing regime and the local content policy and the economic regulation of the media to avoid concentration of ownership. The serious and certainly weak point of Fernando Haddad’s proposal regarding fiscal policy lies in the fact that he does not propose any initiative to stop the rapid growth of the public debt, whose payment of its charges is more than 50% of the budget of the Union, so that the government does not have the resources for investment and doesn´t meet the most basic needs of the Brazilian population. Without the equation of the public debt, there will be no solution to the fiscal crisis of the State in Brazil.

The proposal by Fernando Haddad against the sale of Petrobras assets, the non-privatization of Petrobras and against possible sales of Eletrobras and Petrobras assets is positive because they would contribute to the strengthening of the Brazilian State and, as a consequence, would promote the economic and social development of Brazil. It´s correct the proposed revision of the agreement between Embraer and Boeing that would lead to the definitive denationalization of Embraer and would ompromise the policy of productive and technological autonomy in the Defense area of Brazil, would be damaging to the Brazilian industry that would be affected by the reduction of purchases internal parts and components that will be carried out largely in the United States by Boeing and would lose control over the management of the company as a whole that would be assumed by Boeing.

  1. Economic proposal of Ciro Gomes

Ciro Gomes presents a proposal capable of promoting the reactivation of the Brazilian economy by considering the State as an inducer of economic growth since the private sector alone, as advocated by neoliberalism, has not been able to achieve this goal. The economic proposal of Ciro Gomes is positive because it intends to implement the National Development Project, focused on combating deindustrialization of the country and proposes to invest at least 5% of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) in infrastructure (R $ 300 billion per year), which is one of the ways to make GDP grow rapidly, through public investment or by stimulating the private sector to do so. In order to reactivate the Brazilian economy, Ciro Gomes also proposes to create 2 million jobs in the first year of government, using resources from the FGTS (Service Assurance Fund) to stimulate labor-intensive sectors, reinforce the “Minha Casa, Minha Vida” program with additional resources and encourage current model of concessions and Public Private Partnerships, in addition to strengthening of the role of BNDES (National Bank for Economic and Social Development) in this process. In addition, Ciro Gomes proposes to “clean” the name of the Brazilians in the Credit Protection Service (SPC) register of defaulters, to stimulate consumption that is a way to promote economic growth and generate employment, as well as review labor legislation for legislation to “adapt to new labor market trends” and ensure greater protection for workers. Its proposal is to exercise control of the exchange rate, which should oscillate around a competitive level for the domestic industry, the control of interest rates with the commitment to reduce the economy basic rate and the setting of two targets for the Central Bank (rate of inflation and unemployment rate).

It´s positive the repeal of the spending ceiling established by the government Michel Temer, which has contributed decisively to further aggravate the economic recession that broke out in Brazil in 2014. Taxation on profits and dividends and on inheritances and donations to raise the government’s tax revenue that will contribute to ending the current fiscal deficit is extremely positive. The initiative to end the fiscal deficit in two years is very positive, reducing tax waivers. It´s positive the proposal by Ciro Gomes to establish a limit for the payment of domestic public debt by the State and establish a ceiling for all expenditures to enable the availability of public resources for investment, as well as his proposal to use US $ 200 billion of Brazil’s international reserves to pay 9% of the country’s domestic debt. Also positive is its proposal to make BNDES to act as a major financial agent of the industrial policy strategy, together with FINEP and the state bodies to foster innovation and make with which Banco do Brasil and Caixa Econômica Federal have an active participation in the process of reducing the stratospheric banking spread in Brazil. Its proposal to re-create the sovereign fund to prevent excessive exchange rate swings and to allow the implementation of countercyclical policies and the stability of important prices, such as oil, is also correct, and its proposal to broaden the composition of the Council National Monetary Council and to publish the transcription of the recordings of the COPOM (Monetary Policy Committee) meetings after six months, aiming for greater transparency of the actions of the Central Bank.

The proposal of Ciro Gomes is against the privatization of Eletrobras and the adoption of a policy for the oil sector that provides for the application of the pre-sharing percentages for the exploration of oil and gas in the pre-salt areas, the expropriation of all oil fields auctioned to foreign companies in the Temer government and the limitation of Petrobras’ profit by 3%, in addition to changing the way the company is managed. It´s correct his proposal to suspend the agreement between Embraer and Boeing that would lead to the definitive denationalization of Embraer and would compromise the policy of productive and technological autonomy in the area of Defense of Brazil, would harm the Brazilian industry that would be affected by the reduction of purchases internal parts and components that will be carried out largely in the United States by Boeing and would lose control over the management of the company as a whole that would be assumed by Boeing.

  1. Economic proposal of Geraldo Alckmin

 Geraldo Alckmin promises to double the population’s income after a predetermined time, yet to be defined without informing what resources he would carry out and acts against the Constitution by promising to deconstitutionalize issues related to the country’s economic management so that economic policy has flexibility. Geraldo Alckmin proposes to make Brazil’s foreign trade represent 50% of GDP, which is a difficult proposal because Brazil’s foreign trade now represents 11% of GDP and the world average corresponds to 29.8% of GDP. The initiative to correct the FGTS by TLP (Long Term Rate) to ensure real gains above inflation, to make Brazil the “most attractive” country to undertake and invest in Latin America, strengthen rural insurance and create an anti catastrophe fund, but it is absurd to support the law project under discussion in the National Congress which makes it more flexible to grant pesticide registrations that are harmful to the environment and threaten the health of the population. Geraldo Alckmin does not present any proposal capable of promoting the reactivation of the Brazilian economy and reducing the mass unemployment existing in Brazil and does not propose a National Development Plan  that would serve as a basis for the country’s long-term development. The lack of measures aimed at the reactivation of the economy in the short and long term lies in the fact that Geraldo Alckmin is a defender of neoliberalism that prioritizes the action of the private sector and not intervention of the State in the economy.

It´s positive the initiative of Geraldo Alckmin to create Value Added Tax (VAT) with a single rate charged at the destination to replace ICMS, ISSS, PIS, Cofins and IPI, to tax the distribution of dividends and to end the exemption of LCA and LCI . Geraldo Alckmin proposes to end the fiscal deficit in two years, but does not inform how to do it. It is, however, a great absurdity to Geraldo Alckmin’s intention to keep the expenditure ceiling of the government Temer that contributed decisively to deepen the recession of the Brazilian economy with the generalized breakdown of companies and the massive unemployment that reaches 13 million workers. Geraldo Alckmin does not show how he intends to resume economic activity by reducing spending and without increasing taxes. Regrettably, the candidate does not propose any measures to stop the rapid growth of the public debt, whose payment of its charges is more than 50% burdening the Union budget, so that the government does not have the resources to invest and meet the most basic needs of the Brazilian population. Without the solution of the public debt, there will be no solution to the fiscal crisis of the State in Brazil.

It is a crime against the fatherland Geraldo Alckmin to adopt as a key piece of the government program the neoliberal policy of privatization of state enterprises that would lead to the economic weakening of the State in Brazil, incapacitating it to act as an inducer of economic and social development, besides opening way to deepen the denationalization of the Brazilian economy. Despite promising not to privatize Petrobras, Geraldo Alckmin will weaken it by ending the monopoly, selling the distributor and the company’s mature fields in the post salt.

  1. Economic proposal of Marina Silva

The priority given by Marina Silva to infrastructure works is positive because it favors the creation of formal jobs quickly and significantly, and the prospects for growth of the economy in the medium and long term, especially sanitation and transport works. It´s correct the Marina Silva’s position is contrary to Petrobras’ price policy, which changes daily according to the price of oil in the world market. The position of Marina Silva is correct, defending changes in the labor reform, so that the negotiated one does not overlap with the legislated. The initiative of Marina Silva is positive in favor of serving the poorest regions of the country, encouraging PPPs (Public-Private Partnership) and concessions to increase investments, contracting guarantee insurance to avoid corruption in public works, increasing the capacity of Brazil  export and the increase of investments in research and innovation to 2% of GDP in the next 4 years. It is questionable Marina Silva to give autonomy to the Central Bank in the definition of monetary policy because it has to be subordinated to the government’s economic policy and it is inadmissible to defend the general orientation of labor reform approved by the government Michel Temer because it is harmful to the workers. Regrettably, Marina Silva does not present a proposal to reactivate the Brazilian economy in a deep recession four years ago and does not propose a National Development Plan in which the government is an inducer of the development process. In addition, Marina Silva proposes nothing to reverse the country’s deindustrialization process. Its economic proposal is typically neoliberal in allowing prices, interest and exchange rates to be dictated by the market.

It´s positive the initiative of Marina Silva to implement the Tax on Goods and Services (IBS) joining PIS, Cofins, IPI, ICMS and ISSS because it simplifies taxation, adopts taxation on dividends, increases taxation on inheritance and revises fiscal and tax exemptions. suspend the creation of Refis because it raises public revenue and reduces taxes on medicines and does not tax the basic basket because it encourages the consumption of families. It is positive that Marina Silva is against the spending ceiling adopted by the government Michel Temer considered as an unpractical measure since it has contributed to aggravate Brazil’s economic recession. It is absurd Marina Silva to consider as fundamental pillars of monetary policy the primary surplus that is the resource reserved by the government to pay the public debt service regardless of the resource needs of areas vital to the country such as education, health and infrastructure and the floating exchange rate which causes the government to remain hostage to the financial system insofar as exchange rates vary with market fluctuations rather than Brazil’s needs.  Regarding the inflation targeting regime, it should be considered alongside other targets such as unemployment, for example. In other words, monetary policy should not be restricted to strictly monetary factors. It is absurd Marina Silva to defend the operational autonomy of the Central Bank in its institutional objective of maintaining currency stability and contain inflation because it should execute a monetary policy compatible with the government’s economic policy. Marina Silva does not propose a solution to the internal public debt that is the main economic problem of Brazil contemplating the reduction of charges with the payment of internal public debt by the State renegotiating with its creditors its extension in time. Only then, the government will be able to have public resources for investment.

Marina Silva’s proposal of not to  privatize Petrobras, Caixa Econômica Federal and Banco do Brasil is positive because they strengthen the Brazilian state’s ability to act as inductors of development and is positive proposing an energy policy that incorporates renewable energy. It is absurd Marina Silva to defend privatization of  Eletrobras and its distributors because it would weaken the State’s role in Brazil to promote its development. Unfortunately, Marina Silva does not present any proposal that would lead to the suspension of the agreement between Embraer and Boeing that would lead to the definitive denationalization of Embraer and would call into question the policy of productive and technological autonomy in the area of Defense of Brazil, damaging the Brazilian industry that would be affected with the reduction of domestic purchases of parts and components that will be carried out largely in the United States by Boeing and would lose control in the management of the company as a whole that would be assumed by Boeing.

  1. Conclusions

Therefore, it can be concluded that the economic proposals of candidates Jair Bolsonaro, Geraldo Alckmin and Marina Silva are typically neoliberal, that is, that implies the adoption of an economic model in which the State does not intervene in the economy, leaving it almost entirely to the market forces, in addition to not pointing to the overcoming of the current deep economic recession of Brazil nor much less to the restructuring of the Brazilian economy aiming at the country’s economic and social progress in the medium and long term. The proposal of the candidate Fernando Haddad points towards the reactivation of the Brazilian economy in the short term, but does not indicate the ways of the restructuring of the Brazilian economy aiming at the country’s economic and social progress in the medium and long term. The most complete economic proposal, however, is that of Ciro Gomes, who indicates his position against the neoliberalism responsible for Brazil’s current economic disaster and points out how to reactivate the Brazilian economy in the short term and how to restructure it with a view to the country’s economic and social progress medium and long term.

Jair Bolsonaro does not propose any economic plan that contributes to solve the economic crisis of the Country and the unemployment that unhappy the Brazilian population. His proposal is typically neoliberal, economic model responsible for the economic disaster that affects Brazil at the moment. It is absurd for Jair Bolsonaro to seek to reduce the public debt through privatizations, concessions, sale of real estate properties of the Union and devolution of funds in official financial institutions because they are insufficient. It is an act of lesa homeland of Jair Bolsonaro to sell public assets and privatize state-owned companies, among them Petrobras, given that if they are duly managed they can collaborate in favor of the economic and social development of Brazil.

Geraldo Alckmin does not present any proposal capable of promoting the reactivation of the Brazilian economy and reducing the mass unemployment existing in Brazil and does not propose a National Development Plan that would serve as a basis for the country’s long-term development. The lack of measures aimed at the reactivation of the economy in the short and long term lies in the fact that Geraldo Alckmin is a defender of neoliberalism that prioritizes the action of the private sector and the non-intervention of the State in the economy. Geraldo Alckmin does not propose any measure to stop the rapid growth of the public debt, whose payment of its costs is more than 50% burdening the Union budget, so that the government does not have the resources to invest and to meet the most basic needs of the Brazilian population. It is a crime against the fatherland of Geraldo Alckmin to adopt as a key piece of the government program the neoliberal policy of privatization of state enterprises that would lead to the economic weakening of the State in Brazil, incapacitating it to act as an inducer of economic and social development, besides opening way to deepen the denationalization of the Brazilian economy.

Marina Silva’s economic proposal is typically neoliberal in allowing prices, interest and exchange rates to be dictated by the market. The priority given by Marina Silva to infrastructure works is positive because it favors the creation of formal jobs quickly and significantly, and the prospects for growth of the economy in the medium and long term, especially sanitation and transport works. Marina Silva does not present a proposal to reactivate the Brazilian economy in a deep recession four years ago and does not propose a National Development Plan in which the government is an inducer of the development process. Marina Silva does not propose a solution to the internal public debt that is the main economic problem of Brazil contemplating the reduction of charges with the payment of internal public debt by the State renegotiating with its creditors its extension in time. It´s positive the Marina Silva’s proposal not to privatize Petrobras, Caixa Econômica Federal and Banco do Brasil because they strengthen the Brazilian state’s ability to act as inductors of development and adopt an energy policy that incorporates renewable energy. It is, however, absurd Marina Silva to admit to privatize Eletrobras and its distributors because it would weaken the Brazilian state’s role in promoting its development and not present any proposal that would lead to the suspension of the agreement between Embraer and Boeing that would lead to the definitive denationalization of Embraer.

Fernando Haddad rightly states that the state should be an inducer of growth and should invest in infrastructure to generate 8 million jobs in 4 years. The initiatives proposed by the candidate Fernando Haddad are aimed at reactivating the Brazilian economy, especially those aimed at raising public investments, including the resumption of paralyzed works, Petrobras’ investments and the “Minha Casa Minha Vida” program. The serious and certainly weak point of Fernando Haddad’s proposal lies in the fact that it does not propose a long-term economic plan aiming to restructure the Brazilian economy and not propose any initiative to stop the rapid growth of the public debt whose payment of its costs the federal budget is more than 50%, causing the government to not have resources for investment and do not meet the most basic needs of the Brazilian population. Fernando Haddad’s proposal against the sale of state-owned enterprises is positive because they would contribute to the strengthening of the Brazilian state and, as a consequence, would promote the economic and social development of Brazil.

Ciro Gomes presents an economic proposal capable of promoting the reactivation of the Brazilian economy by considering the State as an inducer of economic growth since the private sector alone, as advocated by neoliberalism, has not been able to achieve this goal. The economic proposal of Ciro Gomes is positive because it intends to implement the National Development Plan, focused on combating deindustrialization of the country and proposes to invest at least 5% of GDP in infrastructure through public investment or encouraging the private sector to do so. The proposal by Ciro Gomes to establish a limit for the payment of domestic public debt by the State and establish a ceiling for all expenditures to enable the availability of public resources for investment is positive. The proposal of Ciro Gomes is against the privatization of state companies because if they are managed properly can contribute to the economic and social development of Brazil.

* Fernando Alcoforado, 78, holder of the CONFEA / CREA System Medal of Merit, member of the Bahia Academy of Education, engineer and doctor in Territorial Planning and Regional Development by the University of Barcelona, ​​university professor and consultant in the areas of strategic planning, business planning, regional planning and planning of energy systems, is the author of 13 books addressing issues such as Globalization and Development, Brazilian Economy, Global Warming and Climate Change, The Factors that Condition Economic and Social Development,  Energy in the world and The Great Scientific, Economic, and Social Revolutions that Changed the World.

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THE ASCENSION OF FASCISM IN BRAZIL

Fernando Alcoforado *

In its ascension, fascism in Brazil must go through four stages. In the first stage already fulfilled, the fascists gathered from the great social mobilization of June 2013 to fight for the construction of a new political, economic and social order replacing the bankrupt current political, economic and social order. Fascism supporters consider that the cause of Brazil’s current ills is related to corruption and the use of the state by parties with a communist tendency. The fascists seek to purify Brazilian society from the toxic influences of parties and political leaders, especially those linked to the PT (Workers Party) and its allies, who would be to blame for the unfortunate situation in which the Brazilian nation lives. Like Hitler’s old fascism in Germany and Mussolini’s in Italy, reason is rejected in favor of passionate emotion. In a second stage still in progress, the fascist movements are creating roots. The success of fascism results from the weakness of the liberal state, which, unable to solve the country’s problems, condemns the nation to disorder, economic and moral decline, and the lack of political consensus as it currently is in Brazil.

The advance of fascism in Brazil results from the fact that economic, social and political organization finds itself in complete disintegration. The inability of the Brazilian government and political institutions in general to offer effective responses to overcome the recessive economic crisis in which the Brazilian nation is suffering and to defuse rampant corruption in all the powers of the Republic today is contributing to the advancement of fascism as a solution to the problems of Brazil. The German sociologist Ralf Dahrendorf, who followed the terrible Nazi years in Berlin, wrote in 1985 a book called The Law and Order, when he stated that anarchy, defined as a general absence of respect for social norms, usually precedes totalitarian regimes. There is no way to dissociate this situation described by Dahrendorf from Brazil’s current grave situation where impunity is increasing and the basic values of civilization are completely weakened.

In the third stage of ascension of fascism in Brazil, an alliance between the conservative elite and the fascists is made when the transition to an openly fascist government begins. In Brazil, this alliance is already consummated with the support of the conservative elite to the candidate Bolsonaro to the Presidency of the Republic that has a proposal of typically fascist government. His speech is based on the explicit cult of order, state violence, authoritarian government practices, social disregard for vulnerable and fragile groups, and anti-communism. The Bolsonaro danger lies in oppression, machismo, homophobia, racism, hatred of the poor. History tells us that once this alliance between the conservative elite and the fascists is formed and succeeds in pursuit of power, there is no longer any way to stop it. The alliance between the conservative elite and the fascists can destroy the last vestiges of a democratic government in Brazil.

Geraldo Alckmin is the conservative elite’s preferred candidate to become president of the Republic in the October elections because he promises to privatize state assets, cut spending, and balance the government’s budget. His economic staff is highly respected and he has enough political support to approve reforms in Congress. However, he is in fourth or fifth place in the polls and is unlikely to pass the first round of the election on Oct. 7. It remains for the bankers Jair Bolsonaro as the most viable option against the leftist parties. The presidents and executives of Brazil’s top banks say they are comfortable with the choice of Bolsonaro’s top adviser, Paulo Guedes, advocate of a small state, free initiative and Social Security reform.

Since bringing Guedes to his campaign, Bolsonaro has shown enthusiasm for the idea of selling all state properties, defending the independence of the Central Bank and seeking approval of the reforms supported by the banking sector. Bolsonaro gained great support in Brazil saying that in the Presidency of the Republic would loosen the restrictions to the firearms and would give more power to the police. Authorities should have more lethal weapons, according to Bolsonaro, who argues that those who kill criminals should receive medals and not go to trial. The great appeal that the Bolsonaro has with the public in general is related to the rage against the traditional politicians and against the corruption. Research shows that he is supported mainly by middle and upper-class men.

In stage four of the ascension of fascism in Brazil, the conservative elite and the fascists would take complete control of the country with Bolsonaro’s victory in the October elections. Like Hitler and Mussolini, Bolsonaro could rise to power in Brazil by popular vote with the support of the conservative elite and broad segments of the population. In taking over, Hitler and Mussolini remained within the bounds of legality, but allowed illegalities out of it. Both were able to gain strategic support from the conservative elite and broad segments of the population who feared the leftist forces. The conservative elite thought that Hitler and Mussolini would be able to keep under control the most exalted right-wing extremists around them. The old German and Italian oligarchs thought that it would be possible to use Hitler and Mussolini to control the red radicals, to turn them into decorative figures, and the old establishment would rule in the shadow, as it had always done. They did not expect the popularity owner (Hitler and Mussolini) to take control of power on their own. The few remaining independent newspapers were muzzled by a series of press restrictions. The way was free for the Nazi dictatorship in Germany and fascist in Italy.

History has proven that the confrontation between the forces of left and right always results in right or left dictatorships. In Czarist Russia in 1917, China in 1949 and in Cuba in 1959 resulted in the establishment of left-wing dictatorships. From this confrontation between left and right forces in Italy and Germany, after the First World War, the fascist and Nazi right-wing dictatorships resulted. In Spain in 1936 resulted the right-wing Franco dictatorship and in Chile in 1973 resulted in Pinochet’s right-wing dictatorship. In Brazil, after the so-called Communist Intent in 1935, Getulio Vargas gave a self-coup in 1937 with the establishment of the dictatorship of the Estado Novo on the right and the government João Goulart was overthrown in 1964 that resulted in the right-wing military dictatorship that lasted for 21 years. The ascension of fascism is already a concrete fact, widespread, rooted and may become irreversible in Brazil at the present time. The only way to avoid the ascension of fascism and the establishment of a right-wing dictatorship in Brazil is the formation of a broad anti-fascist front with the support of the most capable candidate to defeat the fascist forces that support Bolsonaro in the upcoming presidential and parliamentary elections.

* Fernando Alcoforado, 78, holder of the CONFEA / CREA System Medal of Merit, member of the Bahia Academy of Education, engineer and doctor in Territorial Planning and Regional Development by the University of Barcelona, ​​university professor and consultant in the areas of strategic planning, business planning, regional planning and planning of energy systems, is the author of 13 books addressing issues such as Globalization and Development, Brazilian Economy, Global Warming and Climate Change, The Factors that Condition Economic and Social Development,  Energy in the world and The Great Scientific, Economic, and Social Revolutions that Changed the World.

HOW TO PLAN CITIES TO COPE WITH EXTREME WEATHER EVENTS

Fernando Alcoforado*

Abstract: This article aims to present what and how to do to promote cities planning capable of facing extreme climate events.

Keywords: Global warming; Global climate change; Causes of extreme weather events; Impacts of extreme weather events on cities; How to prepare cities against extreme weather events; Cities planning required to face extreme weather events.

1. Introduction

This article aims to present what and how to do to promote cities planning capable of facing extreme weather events. The occurrence of floods in cities in several countries around the world has been recurring. There is a drastic change in the Earth’s climate thanks to global warming, which is contributing to the occurrence of floods in cities that are recurring in an increasingly catastrophic way in their effects. The floods that devastated some cities in western and southern Germany, Henan in China and London in England in 2021 demonstrate the vulnerability of highly populated areas to catastrophic flooding [2].

The catastrophic floods that swept through Europe and China recently are a wake-up call that stronger dams, dikes and drainage systems are as urgent as long-term climate change prevention measures because once-rare weather events are increasingly increasingly common. Drastic cuts in greenhouse gas emissions are certainly necessary to combat climate change and will not cool the planet in the short to medium term. However, until the Earth’s climate stabilizes, each country will need to prepare its cities to face extreme climate events [2]. In many countries, flood-prone rivers need to be carefully managed. Defenses such as dikes, reservoirs and dams need to be used to prevent rivers from overflowing their banks.

Governments need to admit that the infrastructure they have built in the past for cities, even in more recent times, is vulnerable to these extreme weather events. There are solutions that can be adopted by governments to protect cities affected by extreme weather events as a result of global warming and the resulting global climate change, which tends to be catastrophic. To deal with the increasingly frequent floods, governments need to act simultaneously in three directions: the first is to combat global climate change; the second consists of preparing cities to face extreme climate events and, the third, consists of implementing a sustainable society at national and global levels [2].

2. Causes of extreme weather events

Extreme weather events result from global warming. Global warming is a far-reaching climate phenomenon – an increase in the Earth’s average surface temperature that has been occurring over the past 150 years. The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), established by the UN (United Nations), says that much of the warming observed on the planet is due to the increase in the greenhouse effect and there is strong evidence that global warming is due to human activity. Many meteorologists and climatologists consider it proven that human action is actually influencing the occurrence of the phenomenon. There is no doubt that human activity on Earth causes changes in the environment in which we live [1]. Many scientists consider that the increase in the planet’s average temperature results from the greenhouse effect, which is responsible for the severe effects of climate change, resulting in inclement rainfall and consequent floods.

Global warming and the consequent global climate change, which tends to worsen, are contributing to the occurrence of intense rains and floods across the planet. Due to global warming, the atmosphere retains more moisture, which means that when rain clouds become dense, more water is released. By the end of the 21st century, storms of great magnitude will be more frequent, according to a study published by the journal Geophysical Research Letters, using computer simulations [2]. Floods are caused by many factors such as heavy rainfall, strong winds on the water, unusually high tides, tsunamis or dam failures, rising levels of retention ponds or other structures that contain water. Periodic flooding occurs in many rivers, forming a surrounding region known as the floodplain. During times of rain or snow, some of the water is retained in ponds or in the soil, others are absorbed by grass and vegetation, some evaporate and the remainder travels over the land as surface runoff [5].

Floods occur when lakes, riverbeds, soil and vegetation cannot absorb all the water. Water then escapes from the land in quantities that cannot be transported to stream channels or retained in natural ponds, lakes and artificial reservoirs. About 30% of all rainfall is in the form of small runoffs – some of which can be increased by water from any melted snow where it exists. River flooding is usually caused by heavy rains and sometimes without warning, they are called flash floods. Flash floods usually result from heavy rainfall in a relatively small area, or if the area was already saturated with previous precipitation [5].

Severe winds over water are another cause of flooding. Even when rain is relatively light, the shores of lakes and bays can be flooded as a result of strong winds such as during hurricanes that blow water into coastal areas. Another cause is the unusually high tides that sometimes occur in coastal areas when they are inundated by unusually high tides, especially when compounded by strong winds and storm surges [5]. Many of these environmental impacts result from the unsustainability of society’s current development model. The unsustainability of society’s current development model stems from the fact that it is responsible for the rapid increase in global temperatures, the depletion of the planet’s natural resources and the rise in sea levels on a greater scale in the 21st century than in 10,000 years ago since the last ice age [4].

3. The impacts of extreme weather events on cities

Floods cause many impacts. They damage property and endanger the lives of humans and other living beings. Rapid water runoff causes soil erosion and concomitant sediment deposition in several locations. Fish spawning grounds and other wildlife habitats can become polluted or completely destroyed. Some high and prolonged floods can compromise vehicle traffic in areas that do not have elevated roads. Floods can interfere with drainage and the economic use of land, such as interfering with agriculture. Structural damage can occur to bridge piers, sewer systems and other structures in the flood area. Water navigation and hydroelectric power are often hampered. Financial losses due to flooding are typically millions of dollars each year [5].

An important impact resulting from flash flooding is landslides. A landslide is a geological and climatological phenomenon that includes a wide spectrum of ground movements, such as rockfalls, depth slides and debris flows. Landslide is actually just one category of so-called mass movements, which involves the detachment and transport of soil or slope rock material. Three influencing factors can be considered in the occurrence of landslides [2]:

• Type of soil with its constitution, granulometry and level of cohesion;

• Soil slope that defines the angle of repose, according to the weight of the layers, granulometry and level of cohesion;

• Water-soaked soil that contributes to increasing the weight of specific layers, reducing the level of cohesion and friction, also responsible for the consistency of the soil and lubricating the sliding surfaces [2].

To prevent soil sliding, one of the measures is to ensure that the water that runs down the slopes of the mountains drains and loses speed or infiltrates the soil through the use of vegetation. Another, safer, measure is to build terraces in the form of steps to protect the soil from rainwater. Finally, you can use cable-stayed walls, which are robust walls made mainly with concrete and which, in parallel, require interventions in the ground to support the work [2]. Floods that occurred in many cities around the world reveal the incompetence and irresponsibility of public authorities in not planning the city to face extreme weather events. It is not necessary to demonstrate that flooding causes many extremely negative impacts.

Water-related disasters represent 90% of all disasters in number of people affected worldwide. Social and economic costs have increased in recent decades and, according to speakers at the High Level Panel on Water and Natural Disasters at the 8th World Water Forum, the trend will continue to increase if action is not taken to resolve the problem. By 2017, water-related natural disasters caused global losses of US$306 billion. Between 1980 and 2016, 90% of disasters are climate-related. In 2016, of global losses, 31% were due to storms, 32% attributed to flooding and 10% to extreme temperatures [2]. Floods are responsible for the deaths of almost twice as many people as tornadoes and hurricanes combined [2].

4. How to prepare cities against extreme weather events

To deal with extreme weather events in cities, flood control must be carried out. Flood control concerns all methods used to reduce or prevent the harmful effects of water action. Some of the common techniques used for flood control are the installation of rock berms to help with the stability of slopes to hold blocks, rock rip-raps or rock fill, sand bags, maintaining normal slopes with vegetation or applying cement. on soil with steeper slopes and drainage construction or expansion. Other methods include dikes, dams, retention or detention basins. After the 2005 Hurricane Katrina disaster in the United States, some areas prefer not to have levees as flood control. Communities chose to improve drainage structures with detention basins [6].

Some flood control methods have been practiced since ancient times. These methods include planting vegetation to retain excess water on slopes to reduce water flow and building alluviums (artificial channels to divert flood water), building dikes, dams, reservoirs or tanks to store extra water during periods of flooding In many countries, rivers subject to flooding are often carefully managed. Defenses such as dikes, reservoirs and dams are used to prevent rivers from overflowing their banks. A dam is one of the flood protection methods, which reduces the risk of flooding compared to other methods as it can help prevent damage. However, it is best to combine levees with other flood control methods to reduce the risk of a collapsed levee. When these defenses fail, emergency measures such as sandbags or portable inflatable tubes are used. Coastal flooding has been controlled in Europe and North America with defenses such as ocean walls or barrier islands which are long strips of sand usually parallel to the coast [6].

The engineering works that can prevent and mitigate the effects of flooding in cities are as follows: 1) Construction of large swimming pools, which are large underground water tanks to store water; 2) Mandatory placement of permeable drainage floors in huge parking lots in shopping malls, supermarkets and cinemas, to allow water infiltration into part of the soil, with the same action being taken for monuments and spaces around buildings; 3) Use of drains and gutters around all houses to divert rainwater to a reservoir or disposal area; 4) Maintenance, whenever possible, of some green areas so that water is absorbed by the soil; 5) Rectification of rivers and streams, construction of dams and canals on large rivers that extend their containment basins; 6) Meteorological monitoring of the city’s climate to identify the occurrence of extreme events; and, 7) Implementation of a civil defense system that must be able to at least alert people and have a scheme to remove them from their homes in time with some belongings and accommodate them [6].

Taking care to avoid flooding in urban areas is: 1) keeping streets and sidewalks always clean; 2) clean and unclog drains and rainwater drainage; 3) keep rain channels free of tree branches and leaves to avoid clogging and, consequently, the return of water; 4) place garbage bags on the sidewalks only close to the moment the garbage collection truck arrives, preventing them from being pulled into the drain when it rains; 5) have a drainage pump on hand if flooding cannot be avoided; and 6) use Dutch and British flood-proof technology as a floating amphibious house that allows it to float in the same way as a boat [6].

Hydrology experts recommend that, to avoid flooding in urban areas, the following measures should be adopted: 1) Combating erosion by minimizing sedimentation of natural and constructed drainage through rigorous and extensive control of soil erosion and irregular disposal of urban waste and construction debris, as well as the expansion of river channels; 2) Combating soil sealing with the creation of domestic and commercial reservoirs, as well as the expansion of green areas; 3) Prohibition of traffic on avenues with large vehicle movements when nearby rivers overflow; 4) Implementation of avenues covered by vegetation so that, in cases of river or stream overflow, the water would be absorbed by the unpaved soil; 5) Construction of large swimming pools to receive rainwater and mini swimming pools in houses and buildings; 6) Investment in small and large streams in the urban center to receive the increase in water and act as containment barriers; 7) Review of occupied areas with continuous land use planning; and 8) Action and planning with the development of a plan to deal with the occurrence of floods, as well as extreme climate variations, and construction of reservoirs capable of storing billions of cubic meters of water and its use for non-potable purposes [6].

Correction and prevention measures to minimize damage caused by floods are classified, according to their nature, into structural and non-structural measures. Structural measures correspond to work that can be implemented to correct and/or prevent problems arising from flooding. Non-structural measures are those that seek to prevent and/or reduce the damage and consequences of floods, not through work, but through the introduction of standards, regulations and programs that aim, for example, to discipline the use and occupation of land, implementation of alert and population awareness systems [6].

Structural measures comprise engineering works, which can be characterized as intensive and extensive measures [6]. Intensive measures, depending on their purpose, can be of four types:

• Acceleration of outflow: pipelines and related works;

• Flow delay: reservoirs (retention basins), restoration of natural gutters;

• Flow diversion: bypass tunnels and diversion channels;

• Individual actions to make buildings flood-proof.

On the other hand, extensive measures correspond to small water storage in the basin, restoration of vegetation cover and control of soil erosion along the drainage basin [6].

Structural measures can create a sense of false security and even lead to the expansion of occupation of flood areas. Non-structural actions can be effective at lower costs and longer horizons, as well as seeking to discipline territorial occupation, people’s behavior and economic activities [6].

Non-structural measures can be grouped as follows [6]:

• Actions to regulate land use and occupation;

• Environmental education focused on controlling diffuse pollution, erosion and waste;

• Flood insurance;

• Flood warning and forecast systems.

By delimiting areas subject to flooding depending on the risk, it is possible to establish zoning and the respective regulations for construction, or for possible individual protection works (such as the installation of floodgates, watertight doors and others) to be included in existing buildings. Likewise, some areas may be expropriated to be used as squares, parks, parking lots and other uses [6]. In certain cases where structural measures are technically or economically unfeasible (or even untimely), non-structural measures, such as warning systems, can reduce the expected damage in the short term, with small investments [6].

Issues related to structural and non-structural flood prevention measures were a prominent topic at the 2nd Asia-Pacific Water Summit in Chiang Mai. There is a wide gap between groups that prefer “structural” solutions to disaster management and those that prefer “structural” solutions to disaster management “non-structural”. Structural solutions include engineered solutions such as redesigning buildings and designing physical barriers for disaster events in order to reduce damage. Non-structural solutions include social solutions such as early warning, evacuation planning, and emergency response preparedness [6].

Structural groups, which are often made up of engineers, insist that only structural solutions can prevent economic losses and contribute to the nation’s development. On the other hand, non-structural groups often warn: Do not trust engineering solutions, because at some point they will not work. Early warnings, rapid evacuations and emergency responses are easy investments. The term “resilience” has recently been introduced into the dialogue on disaster management. The word implies that people must accept the damage of a disaster and have plans in place for recovery. As you know, alert, evacuation and emergency response can help save lives; however, it cannot protect physical properties and assets. For structural groups, non-structural solutions are not investments. Investments must contribute to development and therefore reduce future expenses. Structural solutions can protect people’s lives and property [6]. It is a false dilemma to choose between structural and non-structural measures to deal with flooding. We must opt for both measures. Non-structural measures should be taken in conjunction with structural measures as a precaution against the latter’s failure to do so [6].

The United Nations IPCC has warned that sufficiently limiting man-made global warming will require rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society in order to avoid dramatic global consequences, including rising sea levels, deaths of coral reefs and human casualties due to extreme heat. The special report – published by the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change – assessed what it will take to limit global temperature rise to no more than 2.7°F (1.5°C) above pre-industrial levels, according to the 2015 Paris Agreement. Scientists consider temperature to be a tipping point at which many severe effects of global warming will be realized [7].

The IPCC report called climate change an urgent and potentially irreversible threat to human societies and the planet, and warned that delaying action would make it impossible to limit warming to 2.7°F (1.5°C). While the pace of change that would be needed to limit warming to [2.7°F] can be traced back to the past, there is no historical precedent for the scale of transitions needed, particularly toward a socially and economically sustainable one, the report says. Resolving such issues of speed and scale would require people’s support, public sector interventions, and private sector cooperation [7].

5. Cities planning required to face extreme weather events

To deal with extreme weather events, it is essential that governments prepare contingency plans to evacuate populations that may be affected as a result of floods, thus minimizing deaths and losses resulting from them. It is up to governments to inspect and monitor dams and adopt measures to prevent their failure. A large part of the resources should be allocated to prevention and not to cover losses as is currently the case because much less is spent on preventing floods than on rebuilding buildings and infrastructures. The municipal government plays a fundamental role in preventing flooding in cities. To this end, a municipal development master plan must be drawn up that includes, among other measures, the adoption of solutions to minimize or eliminate the risks faced by the population, the systematic identification of risk areas in order to establish population settlement rules. In addition, it must monitor risk areas, avoiding dangerous settlements, apply fines when residents do not comply with recommendations, prepare an evacuation plan with an alarm system and indicate areas that are safe for construction, based on zoning. Every resident must be informed of what and how to do to avoid being affected by floods [1].

Three bodies are essential in flood prevention actions in a municipality: 1) the municipal civil defense body, which is responsible for executing, coordinating and mobilizing all civil defense actions in the municipality, whose main task is to know and identify the risks of disasters in the municipality, preparing the population to face them by drawing up specific plans; 2) the body responsible for the meteorological service responsible for reporting the climate forecast for the city and/or region; and, 3) community civil defense centers, which are people who work voluntarily in civil defense activities, to collaborate with the civil defense body aiming at community participation, preparing it to respond promptly to disasters. It is up to the mayor to determine the creation of the civil defense body [1].

Sustainability is a term used to define human actions and activities that seek to meet the present needs of human beings without compromising the future of the next generations. In the case of floods, sustainability is achieved in their management when the environment affected by them is preserved for use by current and future generations with the adoption of prevention and precautionary measures against their occurrence. Sustainability is achieved in flood management with the development of prevention, precautionary and risk management plans, in addition to the intensification of inspection. To deal with flood risks, it is essential that prevention and precautionary measures are adopted to avoid catastrophic events. The Preliminary Environmental Impact Assessment of Floods is an important instrument for formulating civil defense plans, as it is used to assess, predict and prevent greater economic and social damage resulting from floods. It is worth noting that preventive or precautionary measures should underpin risk management policies and, above all, should be present in civil defense proposals and actions to combat floods [1].

Sea level rise is one of the best-known threats resulting from global warming and climate change. As humanity pollutes the atmosphere with greenhouse gases, the planet warms. As they do, ice sheets and glaciers melt and warming seawater expands, increasing the volume of water in the world’s oceans. Globally, sea level rise could have a significant impact in the coming years. Potential impacts of sea level rise include flooding, erosion of coastal regions, and submergence of flat regions along the mainland coast and on islands.

According to Climate Central, a non-profit organization that analyzes and reports on climate science, made up of scientists and science journalists, which conducts scientific research on climate change and energy issues throughout the 21st century, considers that levels Global sea levels could increase by between around 61 cm and 2.13 m between 2030 and 2100 if nothing is done to prevent them. However, in some places on the planet the sea level could rise by up to 3.5 meters. In the extreme case, sea levels could rise by more than 7 meters if the ice caps, mountain ranges and Greenland melt [8]. The Greenland ice sheet alone contains enough water to raise sea levels by 7 meters, according to John Sutter’s article “Climate: 9 questions on rising seas” [9]. Projecting where and when this increase could translate into increased partial flooding and permanent flooding is important for planning coastal regions and cities.

A new digital model, CoastalDEM, from Climate Central was used to identify flood areas on the planet. This is a high-precision digital elevation model for coastal areas that reduces average errors to nearly zero in NASA’s widely used SRTM DEM and reveals flood threats three times greater. CoastalDEM shows that many of the world’s coastal regions are at very low water levels and that rising sea levels could affect hundreds of millions of people in the coming decades more than previously thought. Based on sea level projections for 2050, the region of the planet currently home to 300 million people will fall below the elevation of an average annual coastal flood. By 2100, the region of the planet now home to 200 million people could be permanently below the high tide line [8].

What to do to face rising sea levels? The First Street Foundation, which published the article Solving for Sea Level Rise [8], offers answers with proposed solutions such as those described below:

Solution 1: Building Seawalls

One solution that cities employ to reduce tidal and storm flooding is the construction of seawalls. These barriers are generally built at a height of 1.52 meters to 1.83 meters above sea level. When seawalls or breakwaters age or are damaged by constant exposure to salt water or wave impact, they need to be reinforced or replaced. They also need to be reinforced, replaced or built higher as sea levels continue to rise.

Solution 2: Using beaches and dunes as barriers

Similar to seawalls, beaches and dunes can act as a natural wall and reduce the impact of ocean waves and storms. The longer the beach or the larger the dune, the more water can be prevented from reaching homes and roads. City rulers can add sand to widen beaches or to prevent them from eroding. Using this type of natural infrastructure can protect cities from flooding while maintaining beaches for the community to enjoy.

Solution 3: Raising the level of highways

Raising highways above sea level can help drain water and reduce tidal flooding. To ensure that higher roads do not channel floodwaters into homes and stores at lower elevations, city officials often pump stormwater to remove this excess water.

Solution 4: Stormwater pumping

With higher seas, water does not drain into the ocean as easily. Drainage systems are designed to channel excess rainwater from streets and drain it out to sea, but pressure from rising sea levels and high tides can push too much water into these pipes, causing water to leak into the streets. Pumps can speed up the process of removing water from streets, sucking up floodwater and releasing it back into the sea.

Solution 5: Updating Sewer Systems

Floods can disrupt sewage systems and, in particular, threaten septic tanks. As salt water is corrosive, it can damage tanks and cause sewage to be expelled, creating health risks for the population. City leaders can upgrade sewer systems so rainwater does not infiltrate pipes and upgrade septic tanks or replace them with sewer lines.

Solution 6: Creating natural infrastructure

Coastal communities can restore natural infrastructure, which can act as a buffer against storms and coastal flooding. Natural structures such as barrier islands, coral reefs, mangroves, sea grass beds and salt marshes can work alone or in conjunction with built infrastructure such as breakwaters to absorb storm surge. These projects are often cost-effective, can improve the natural environment for the community, and save important habitats.

Solution 7: Decreasing the land sinking

Cities can reduce land sinking by limiting groundwater pumping and starting pilot projects to reverse land sinking by filling empty space in places where groundwater has been pumped.

Solution 8: Planned relocation of populations

This solution is adopted in some coastal areas that are being lost to storms, rising sea levels, erosion and land sinking. Although communities are implementing many of the solutions available to help prevent land loss, relocation of populations in extreme cases should be considered. This may not be the best option for all coastal communities facing the imminent threat of sea level rise, but for some, it is the best solution to keep residents safe.

In addition to the local solutions described above, the measures recommended by the Paris Climate Agreement should be simultaneously adopted to reduce the global emission of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, among others) to avoid global warming of more than 2 degrees Celsius (°C) by the end of the 21st century [8].

Cities will be better able to face extreme climate events if they are transformed into smart and sustainable cities. Building smart and sustainable cities means providing rational management, improving the quality of life for the entire population, sustainable development of the city and democratization of government decisions with the participation of the entire population. Every city achieves the status of a smart city when its managers consider it as a system and use information technology in its planning and control process, counting on the effective support of its population. Every smart city requires the use of information technology with the use of various devices connected to the IoT (Internet of Things) network to manage the city’s operations and services rationally and connect with its citizens [3].

The Internet of Things (IoT, in English) refers to a technological revolution that aims to connect everyday items used to the world wide web and is one of the main global trends its use in the administration of a city because it is applicable in solutions ranging from monitoring public lighting, pedestrians, cyclists, motor vehicles, public transport, education and health services, among others. The applications of the Internet of Things are almost endless. Furthermore, IoT will lead to a reduction in waste of public resources in cities. Driven by the rise of 5G Internet, IoT devices can bring benefits to people, companies and the public sector. However, it is worth highlighting that, to be considered an IoT solution, a city’s administration system needs to have three characteristics: 1) receive digital data originating from sensors; 2) connect to an external network; and, 3) process information automatically, that is, without human intervention [3].

A new revolution in the media is about to occur with the use of 5G Internet across the world, representing to date the greatest advance in communications after a long historical process of technological evolution. 5G Internet will produce gigantic impacts on the economy and society. It is an absolutely innovative communications platform with features that allow machine-to-machine (M2M) communication with great efficiency, effectiveness, reliability and security. In this sense, it is developed for the internet of things (IoT), that is, for personal applications, but it also serves as a communications platform for the development of new and revolutionary applications for industry, cities, agriculture, transport and the services. The 5G Internet will be a major driver for the development of Industry 4.0 and the advent of smart cities because it tends to accelerate the development of technologies, such as the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence and machine learning, whose potential will not consist of only in improving connectivity for people, but allowing communication between objects, which can decisively transform urban services and spaces [3].

Information technology allows city managers to interact directly with their executing agencies and the population and monitor what is happening in the city and how the city is evolving in real time. Information technology should be used to improve the quality, performance and interactivity of urban services, reduce costs and resource consumption and increase contact between citizens and government. A smart city can be better prepared to respond to the challenges faced by its managers and its population. Every city will achieve the status of a smart city when the objectives of humanizing the city are achieved by improving the quality of life for the entire population, sustainable development of the city and democratization of government decisions with the participation of the entire population [3 ].

Improving the population’s quality of life depends on the conditions of their existence in terms of employment, housing, basic sanitation, urban infrastructure, urban mobility and access to education, culture, health and leisure services. The sustainable development of a city will only be achieved when the degradation of natural resources is avoided and there are clear and comprehensive policies for sanitation, waste collection and treatment, water management, with collection, treatment, economy and reuse, transport systems that favor mass transport with quality and safety, actions that preserve and expand green areas, the use of clean and renewable energy and, above all, transparent public administration shared with organized civil society. In turn, the democratization of government decisions with the participation of the entire population will only exist when they become involved not only in providing data, but also decide on the city’s direction [3].

Among the world’s smart cities, the following stand out: 1) Amsterdam, which has, since 2009, an interconnected platform through wireless devices to improve the city’s decision-making abilities in real time, reduce traffic, save energy and improve public safety; 2) Copenhagen, which, in 2014, won the prestigious World Smart Cities Award for its smart city development strategy aimed at improving air quality, liveability and traffic flow; 3) Dubai, which has a project to become a smart city by 2030, with transport initiatives that include driverless vehicles, digitalization of government, business and customer transactions; and, 4) Stockholm, which aims to create a green IT structure to reduce environmental impact, increase the energy efficiency of buildings and traffic monitoring, among other objectives [3].

It is an imperative need to make cities smart because the city has become the main habitat of humanity. For the first time in human history, more than half of the population lives in cities. This number, 3.3 billion people, is expected to surpass the 5 billion mark by 2030. At the beginning of the 20th century, the urban population did not exceed 220 million people. Access to jobs, services, public facilities and greater economic and social well-being is its greatest attraction for all who seek it [3]. A large part of global environmental problems originate in cities, which makes it difficult to achieve sustainability at a global level without making them smart [3].

Significant impacts on the environment occur due to the modes of production and consumption in urbanized spaces. Pollution, traffic jams, violence, unemployment, etc., are common in cities. Water pollution is mainly caused by the release of untreated industrial and domestic effluents. Air pollution is a major problem detected in cities that results from the release of toxic gases into the atmosphere. The intense flow of cars and industries is mainly responsible for this type of pollution. Other environmental problems resulting from urbanization are soil sealing, visual pollution, noise pollution, climate change, acid rain, lack of environmental sanitation, lack of adequate disposal and treatment of solid waste, greenhouse effect, among others. The lack of effective urban planning compromises the quality of life of the urban population. The disorderly growth of cities generates the occupation of places unsuitable for housing low-income populations, such as those with high slopes, valley bottoms, among others [3].

The accelerated urbanization and growth of cities, especially since the mid-20th century, has promoted physiognomic changes on the planet, more than any other human activity. It is in cities that the social, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainable development converge most intensely, making it necessary to structure smart cities that are designed, managed and planned in accordance with the sustainable development model that aims to meet current needs of the Earth’s population without compromising its natural resources, bequeathing them to future generations. This means that the smart and sustainable development model in cities must be adopted with the aim of making economic and social factors compatible with the environment [3].

In the contemporary era, when the problems of global warming can lead to catastrophic climate change on a planetary scale, every city needs to have a climate change adaptation plan, especially those subject to extreme events. Coastal cities, for example, must plan against the predictable rise in ocean levels and worry about landslides on slopes, floods, etc., resulting from inclement rain. In short, they must have flexibility and adaptability to new climatic requirements. It is necessary to redesign the urban growth of cities to integrate it with the natural environment and recover its beaches and rivers that are now compromised by the release of sewage, so that cities do not receive a hostile response from the natural environment [3].

Significant impacts on the environment occur due to the modes of production and consumption in urbanized spaces. Pollution, traffic jams, violence, unemployment, etc., are common in cities. Water pollution is mainly caused by the release of untreated industrial and domestic effluents. Air pollution is a major problem detected in cities that results from the release of toxic gases into the atmosphere. The intense flow of cars and industries is mainly responsible for this type of pollution. Other environmental problems resulting from urbanization are soil sealing, visual pollution, noise pollution, climate change, acid rain, lack of environmental sanitation, lack of adequate disposal and treatment of solid waste, greenhouse effect, among others. The lack of effective urban planning compromises the quality of life of the urban population. The disorderly growth of cities generates the occupation of places unsuitable for housing low-income populations, such as those with high slopes, valley bottoms, among others [3].

The accelerated urbanization and growth of cities, especially since the mid-20th century, has promoted physiognomic changes on the planet, more than any other human activity. It is in cities that the social, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainable development converge most intensely, making it necessary to structure smart cities that are designed, managed and planned in accordance with the sustainable development model that aims to meet current needs of the Earth’s population without compromising its natural resources, bequeathing them to future generations. This means that the smart and sustainable development model in cities must be adopted with the aim of making economic and social factors compatible with the environment [3].

After all, what characterizes a smart and sustainable city? It is for the city to be managed rationally with the support of the population with the use of information technology, which ensures the population’s right to urban land, housing, environmental sanitation, urban infrastructure, transport and public services, work and to leisure, for current and future generations and which ensures the population’s right to decide on the destiny of their city. Transforming a city into a smart city means using information technology to facilitate city management with the collaboration of the population and counting on their participation in decision-making. The future of cities and their populations therefore depends on what is done to adopt a new management model with the use of information technology, promote improved quality of life for the entire population, promote the sustainable development of city and promote the democratization of government decisions with the participation of the entire population [3].

The facts of life are increasingly showing the need for the paradigm that has guided the development of human society since the 1st Industrial Revolution to be profoundly modified. This is why the current model of society must be replaced by the sustainable development model, among other measures. Some measures need to be implemented to stop the current rate of global warming [4]:

• Reduce carbon emissions by 45%

By 2030, global carbon dioxide emissions are expected to be 45% lower than in 2010, according to the report. Carbon dioxide emissions are expected to be zero by around 2075, meaning the amount of carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere equals the amount to be removed. By 2050, emissions of other greenhouse gases, including methane and carbon black, must be reduced by 35% from the 2010 rate. Emissions would need to decline rapidly in all major sectors of society, including buildings, industry, transport, energy and agriculture, forestry and other land uses.

• Remove carbon dioxide from the air

In addition to reducing carbon dioxide emissions, reported carbon dioxide removal measures include planting new trees and carbon capture and storage, the process by which carbon dioxide is captured and prevented from entering the atmosphere. Most current and potential carbon dioxide removal measures could have significant impacts on land, energy, water or nutrients if implemented on a large scale.

• Use 85% renewable energy and stop using coal entirely

The report recommended far-reaching changes to land use, urban planning, infrastructure systems and energy use – changes that will be “unprecedented in terms of scale”. Climate scientists have said that renewable energy sources will have to account for 70% to 85% of electricity production by 2050. Coal use is expected to decline sharply and is expected to account for almost 0% of global electricity, and gas just 8% . While recognizing the challenges and differences between national options and circumstances, the political, economic, social and technical viability of solar energy, wind energy and electricity storage technologies have improved substantially in recent years. These improvements signal a possible system transition in electricity generation.

• Plant new forests equal to the size of Canada

Scientists recommend that up to 3 million square miles of grassland and up to 1.9 million square miles of non-grazing farmland be converted into up to 2.7 million square miles for energy crops, which can be used to produce biofuels. This would equate to an amount of land slightly smaller than the size of Australia. The report also recommends adding 3.9 million square miles of forests by 2050, up from 2010 — which is about the size of Canada.

REFERENCES

1.            ALCOFORADO, Fernando. How to cope with extreme weather events in Brazilian cities. Available on the website <https://www.academia.edu/113388717/HOW_TO_COPE_WITH_EXTREME_WEATHER_EVENTS_IN_BRAZILIAN_CITIES>.

2.              ALCOFORADO, Fernando. City floods and global climate change. Available on the website <https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/city-floods-global-climate-change-fernando-alcoforado/>.

3.              ALCOFORADO, Fernando. How to build smart and sustainable cities. Available on the website <https://www.academia.edu/61050601/HOW_TO_BUILD_SMART_AND_SUSTAINABLE_CITIES>.

4.              ALCOFORADO, Fernando. Catastrophic Climate Change Requires New Society Model. Available on the website <https://www.heraldopenaccess.us/openaccess/catastrophic-climate-change-requires-new-society-model>.

5.              ALCOFORADO, Fernando. Sustainability in flood management. Available on the website <https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/sustainability-flood-management-fernando-a-g-alcoforado/>. It´s a chapter in the book Flood Handbook (CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida United States, 2022).

6.              ALCOFORADO, Fernando. How to prepare cities against extreme climate events. Available on the website <https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/how-prepare-cities-against-extreme-climate-events-fernando-alcoforado/>.

7.              ALCOFORADO, Fernando. Strategies to deal with global climate change. Available on the website <https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/strategies-deal-global-climate-change-fernando-a-g-alcoforado/

8.              FIRST STREET FOUNDATION. Solving for Sea Level Rise. Disponível no website <https://medium.com/firststreet/solving-for-sea-level-rise-b95600751525>.

9.              SUTTER, John. Climate: 9 questions on rising seas, Disponível no website <https://edition.cnn.com/2015/05/05/opinions/sutter-sea-level-climate/index.html>.

* Fernando Alcoforado, awarded the medal of Engineering Merit of the CONFEA / CREA System, member of the Bahia Academy of Education, of the SBPC- Brazilian Society for the Progress of Science and of IPB- Polytechnic Institute of Bahia, engineer from the UFBA Polytechnic School and doctor in Territorial Planning and Regional Development from the University of Barcelona, college professor (Engineering, Economy and Administration) and consultant in the areas of strategic planning, business planning, regional planning, urban planning and energy systems, was Advisor to the Vice President of Engineering and Technology at LIGHT S.A. Electric power distribution company from Rio de Janeiro, Strategic Planning Coordinator of CEPED- Bahia Research and Development Center, Undersecretary of Energy of the State of Bahia, Secretary of Planning of Salvador, is the author of the books Globalização (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC- O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem Mundial (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2000), Os condicionantes do desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de doutorado. Universidade de Barcelona,http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globalização e Desenvolvimento (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século XX e Objetivos Estratégicos na Era Contemporânea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The Necessary Conditions of the Economic and Social Development- The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2010), Amazônia Sustentável- Para o progresso do Brasil e combate ao aquecimento global (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2011), Os Fatores Condicionantes do Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2012), Energia no Mundo e no Brasil- Energia e Mudança Climática Catastrófica no Século XXI (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2015), As Grandes Revoluções Científicas, Econômicas e Sociais que Mudaram o Mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2016), A Invenção de um novo Brasil (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2017), Esquerda x Direita e a sua convergência (Associação Baiana de Imprensa, Salvador, 2018), Como inventar o futuro para mudar o mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2019), A humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência (Editora Dialética, São Paulo, 2021), A escalada da ciência e da tecnologia e sua contribuição ao progresso e à sobrevivência da humanidade (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2022), a chapter in the book Flood Handbook (CRC Press,  Boca Raton, Florida United States, 2022), How to protect human beings from threats to their existence and avoid the extinction of humanity (Generis Publishing, Europe, Republic of Moldova, Chișinău, 2023) and A revolução da educação necessária ao Brasil na era contemporânea (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2023).

COMO PLANEJAR AS CIDADES PARA ENFRENTAR EVENTOS CLIMÁTICOS EXTREMOS

Fernando Alcoforado*

Abstract: Este artigo tem por objetivo apresentar o que e como fazer para promover o planejamento das cidades capaz de enfrentar eventos climáticos extremos.

Palavras-chave: Aquecimento global; Mudança climática global; Causas dos eventos climáticos extremos; Impactos dos eventos climáticos extremos nas cidades; Como preparar as cidades contra eventos climáticos extremos; O planejamento das cidades requerido para enfrentar eventos climáticos extremos.

1.     Introdução

Este artigo tem por objetivo apresentar o que e como fazer para promover o planejamento das cidades capaz de enfrentar eventos climáticos extremos. Tem sido recorrente a ocorrência de inundações nas cidades em vários países do mundo. Está havendo uma mudança drástica no clima da Terra graças ao aquecimento global que está contribuindo para a ocorrência de inundações nas cidades que se repetem de forma cada vez mais catastrófica em seus efeitos. As inundações que devastaram algumas cidades do oeste e do sul da Alemanha, Henan na China e Londres na Inglaterra em 2021 demonstram a vulnerabilidade de áreas altamente populosas a enchentes catastróficas [2].

As enchentes catastróficas que varreram a Europa e a China recentemente são um alerta de que represas, diques e sistemas de drenagem mais fortes são tão urgentes quanto medidas de prevenção em longo prazo contra as mudanças climáticas porque eventos climáticos, que já foram raros, estão cada vez mais comuns. Cortes drásticos em emissões de gases do efeito estufa são certamente necessários para combater a mudança climática que não resfriarão o planeta a curto e médio prazo. No entanto, enquanto o clima da Terra não se estabilizar, cada país precisará preparar suas cidades para enfrentar eventos extremos no clima [2].  Em muitos países, os rios propensos a inundações precisam ser cuidadosamente gerenciados. Defesas como diques, reservatórios e represas precisam ser usadas para impedir que os rios transbordem.

Os governos precisam admitir que a infraestrutura que construíram no passado para as cidades, mesmo em tempos mais recentes, é vulnerável a esses eventos de clima extremo. Há soluções que podem ser adotadas pelos governantes para proteger as cidades afetadas por eventos climáticos extremos em consequência do aquecimento global e da consequente mudança climática global que tende a ser catastrófica. Para lidar com as inundações que serão cada vez mais frequentes, os governos precisam agir simultaneamente em três direções: a primeira consiste em combater a mudança climática global; a segunda consiste em preparar as cidades para enfrentar eventos extremos no clima e, a terceira, consiste em implantar uma sociedade sustentável nas esferas nacional e global [2].

2. Causas dos eventos climáticos extremos

Os eventos climáticos extremos resultam do aquecimento global. O aquecimento global é um fenômeno climático de grande extensão – um aumento na temperatura média da superfície da Terra que vem ocorrendo nos últimos 150 anos. O IPCC (Painel Intergovernamental sobre Mudança Climática), estabelecido pela ONU (Organização das Nações Unidas), diz que muito do aquecimento observado no planeta deve-se ao aumento do efeito estufa e há fortes evidências de que o aquecimento global se deve a atividade humana. Muitos meteorologistas e climatologistas consideram provado que a ação humana está realmente influenciando a ocorrência do fenômeno. Não há dúvida de que a atividade humana na Terra causa mudanças no ambiente em que vivemos [1]. Muitos cientistas consideram que o aumento da temperatura média do planeta resulta do efeito estufa que é responsável pelos efeitos severos da mudança climática dela resultando a inclemência de chuvas e consequentes inundações.

O aquecimento global e a consequente mudança climática global, que tende a se agravar, estão contribuindo para a ocorrência de chuvas intensas e de inundações em todo o planeta. Devido ao aquecimento global, a atmosfera retém mais umidade, o que significa que, quando as nuvens de chuva se tornam densas, mais água é liberada. Até o fim do século XXI, tempestades de grande magnitude serão mais frequentes, segundo estudo publicado pelo periódico Geophysical Research Letters, usando simulações de computador [2]. As inundações são causadas por muitos fatores tais como precipitação pluviométrica intensa, ventos fortes sobre a água, marés altas incomuns, tsunamis ou falha de barragens, elevação dos níveis de lagoas de retenção ou outras estruturas que contenham  água. Inundações periódicas ocorrem em muitos rios, formando uma região circundante conhecida como planície aluvial. Durante épocas de chuva ou neve, parte da água é retida em lagoas ou no solo, outras são absorvidas por grama e vegetação, algumas se evaporam e o restante percorre a terra como escoamento superficial [5].

As inundações ocorrem quando lagos, leitos de rios, solo e vegetação não conseguem absorver toda a água. A água então escapa da terra em quantidades que não podem ser transportadas para os canais dos córregos ou retidas em lagoas naturais, lagos e reservatórios artificiais. Cerca de 30% de todas as chuvas são na forma de pequenos escoamentos – uma quantidade pode ser aumentada pela água de qualquer neve derretida onde ela existir. A inundação do rio geralmente é causada por chuvas fortes e às vezes sem nenhum aviso prévio, são chamadas de inundações repentinas. Inundações repentinas geralmente resultam de chuvas fortes em uma área relativamente pequena, ou se a área já estava saturada com precipitação anterior [5].

Ventos severos sobre a água são outra causa de inundações. Mesmo quando a chuva é relativamente leve, as margens de lagos e baías podem ser inundadas em consequência de ventos fortes como durante os furacões que sopram a água para as áreas da costa. Outra causa são as marés altas incomuns que ocorrem, às vezes em áreas costeiras quando são inundadas por marés extraordinariamente altas, especialmente quando compostas por ventos fortes e tempestades [5]. Muitos desses impactos ambientais resultam da insustentabilidade do atual modelo de desenvolvimento da sociedade. A insustentabilidade do atual modelo de desenvolvimento da sociedade decorre do fato de ele ser responsável pelo rápido aumento das temperaturas globais, pelo esgotamento dos recursos naturais do planeta e pelo aumento do nível do mar em uma escala maior no século XXI do que nos 10 mil anos desde a última era do gelo [4].

3. Os impactos dos eventos climáticos extremos nas cidades

As inundações causam muitos impactos. Elas danificam a propriedade e põem em perigo a vida de seres humanos e outros seres vivos. O rápido escoamento da água causa erosão do solo e concomitante deposição de sedimentos em vários locais. Os locais de desova de peixes e outros habitats de vida selvagem podem ficar poluídos ou completamente destruídos. Algumas inundações altas e prolongadas podem comprometer o tráfego de veículos em áreas que não possuem vias elevadas. As inundações podem interferir na drenagem e no uso econômico da terra, como interferir na agricultura. Danos estruturais podem ocorrer em pilares de pontes, sistemas de esgoto e outras estruturas na área de inundações. A navegação por água e a energia hidrelétrica são muitas vezes prejudicadas. As perdas financeiras devido a inundações são tipicamente milhões de dólares a cada ano [5].

Um impacto importante resultante da inundação repentina é o deslizamento de terra. Um deslizamento de terra é um fenómeno geológico e climatológico que inclui um amplo espectro de movimentos do solo, como quedas de rochas, escorregamentos em profundidade e correntes de detritos. O deslizamento é, na verdade, apenas uma categoria dos chamados movimentos de massa, que envolve o descolamento e o transporte de solo ou declive de material rochoso. Três fatores de influência podem ser considerados na ocorrência de escorregamentos [2]:

·        Tipo de solo com sua constituição, granulometria e nível de coesão;

·         Declividade do solo que define o ângulo de repouso, de acordo com o peso das camadas, granulometria e nível de coesão;

·        Solo encharcado de água que contribui para aumentar o peso das camadas específicas, reduzindo o nível de coesão e fricção, também responsável pela consistência do solo e lubrificando as superfícies de deslizamento [2].

Para evitar o deslizamento do solo, uma das medidas é fazer com que a água que desce nas encostas das montanhas seja drenada e perca velocidade ou se infiltre no solo com o uso de vegetação. Outra medida, mais segura, é construir terraços em forma de degraus para proteger o solo da ação da água da chuva. Finalmente, pode-se utilizar cortinas atirantadas que são muros robustos feitos principalmente com concreto e que, em paralelo, exigem intervenções no solo para dar sustentação à obra [2]. As inundações ocorridas em muitas cidades do mundo revelam a incompetência e irresponsabilidade dos poderes públicos ao não planejar a cidade para fazer frente a eventos climáticos extremos.

Os desastres relacionados com a água representam 90% de todos os desastres em número de pessoas afetadas em todo o mundo. Os custos sociais e econômicos aumentaram nas últimas décadas e, de acordo com os palestrantes do Painel de Alto Nível sobre Água e Desastres Naturais no 8º Fórum Mundial da Água, a tendência continuará a aumentar se uma ação não for tomada para resolver o problema. Até 2017, os desastres naturais relacionados à água causaram perdas mundiais de US$ 306 bilhões. Entre 1980 e 2016, 90% dos desastres estão relacionados ao clima. Em 2016, das perdas globais, 31% foram devidas a tempestades, 32% atribuídas a inundações e 10% a temperaturas extremas [2]. As inundações são responsáveis pela morte de quase o dobro do número de pessoas do que tornados e furacões juntos [2].

4. Como preparar as cidades contra eventos climáticos extremos

Para fazer frente a eventos climáticos extremos nas cidades, é preciso que seja realizado o controle de inundações. O controle de inundação diz respeito a todos os métodos usados para reduzir ou impedir os efeitos prejudiciais da ação das águas. Algumas das técnicas comuns usadas para controle de enchentes é a instalação de bermas de rocha para ajudar na estabilidade dos taludes visando segurar blocos, rip-raps de rochas ou enrocamento de pedras, sacos de areia, manutenção de encostas normais com vegetação ou aplicação de cimentos em solo com declives mais íngremes e construção ou expansão de drenagem. Outros métodos incluem diques, represas, bacias de retenção ou detenção. Após o desastre de 2005 do furacão Katrina nos Estados Unidos, algumas áreas preferem não ter diques como controle de inundação. As comunidades optaram por melhorar as estruturas de drenagem com bacias de detenção [6].

Alguns métodos de controle de enchentes são praticados desde a Antiguidade. Esses métodos incluem o plantio de vegetação para reter o excesso de água nas encostas para reduzir o fluxo de água e a construção de aluviões (canais artificiais para desviar a água das enchentes), construção de diques, barragens, reservatórios ou tanques para armazenar água extra durante os períodos de inundação Em muitos países, os rios sujeitos a inundações são muitas vezes cuidadosamente geridos. Defesas como diques, reservatórios e represas são usadas para evitar que os rios transbordem. Uma barragem é um dos métodos de proteção contra inundações, que reduz o risco de inundações em comparação com outros métodos, uma vez que pode ajudar a prevenir danos. No entanto, é melhor combinar diques com outros métodos de controle de inundação para reduzir o risco de um dique colapsado. Quando essas defesas falham, medidas de emergência, como sacos de areia ou tubos infláveis portáteis, são usadas. Inundações costeiras foram controladas na Europa e na América do Norte com defesas como paredes oceânicas ou ilhas de barreira que são longas faixas de areia geralmente paralelas à costa [6].

As obras de engenharia que podem prevenir e mitigar os efeitos das inundações nas cidades são as seguintes: 1) Construção de grandes piscinas que são grandes tanques de água subterrânea para armazenar as águas; 2) Colocação obrigatória de pisos de drenagem permeáveis em pátios enormes de estacionamentos em shoppings, supermercados e cinemas, para permitir a infiltração de água em parte do solo, sendo feito a mesma ação para monumentos e espaços em torno de edifícios; 3) Uso de drenos e calhas em volta de todas as casas para desviar a água da chuva para um reservatório ou área de disposição; 4) Manutenção, sempre que possível, de algumas áreas verdes para que a água seja absorvida pelo solo; 5) Retificação de rios e córregos, construção de represas e canais em grandes rios que estendem suas bacias de contenção; 6) Monitoramento meteorológico do clima da cidade para identificar a ocorrência de eventos extremos; e, 7) Implementação de um sistema de defesa civil que deve ser capaz de pelo menos alertar as pessoas e ter um esquema para removê-las das casas em tempo com alguns pertences e acomodá-los [6].

Cuidar para evitar inundações em áreas urbanas é: 1) manter ruas e calçadas sempre limpas; 2) limpar e desentupir bueiros e drenagem de águas pluviais; 3) manter os canais de chuva livres de galhos e folhas de árvores para evitar o entupimento e, consequentemente, o retorno da água; 4) colocar sacos de lixo nas calçadas apenas próximo do momento em que o caminhão de coleta de lixo chegar, evitando que sejam puxados para dentro do bueiro quando chover; 5) ter uma bomba de drenagem à mão se a inundação não puder ser evitada; e 6) usar tecnologia holandesa e britânica à prova de inundação como uma casa anfíbia flutuante que permite que ela flutue da mesma forma que um barco [6].

Os especialistas em Hidrologia recomendam que, para evitar inundações em áreas urbanas, devem ser adotadas as medidas seguintes: 1) Combate à erosão minimizando a sedimentação da drenagem natural e construída através do controle rigoroso e extensivo da erosão do solo e disposição irregular de lixo urbano e entulho de construção, assim como a expansão das calhas dos rios; 2) Combate à impermeabilização do solo com a criação de reservatórios domésticos e comerciais, bem como a expansão de áreas verdes; 3) Proibição do tráfego em avenidas de grande movimento de veículos  quando os rios próximos transbordam; 4) Implantação de avenidas cobertas por vegetação que, em casos de transbordamento de rios ou córregos, a água seria absorvida pelo solo livre de pavimentação; 5) Construção de grandes piscinas para receber água da chuva e mini piscinas em casas e edifícios; 6) Investimento em pequenos e grandes córregos do centro urbano para receber o aumento da água e atuar como barreiras de contenção; 7) Revisão das áreas ocupadas com o planejamento contínuo do uso da terra; e 8) Ação e planejamento  com a elaboração de um plano para lidar com a ocorrência de inundações, bem como variações climáticas extremas, e construção de reservatórios capazes de armazenar bilhões de metros cúbicos de água e seu uso para fins não potáveis [6].

As medidas de correção e prevenção para minimizar os danos causados pelas inundações são classificadas, de acordo com sua natureza, em medidas estruturais e não estruturais. As medidas estruturais correspondem aos trabalhos que podem ser implementados visando a correção e / ou prevenção de problemas decorrentes de inundações. Medidas não estruturais são aquelas que buscam prevenir e / ou reduzir os danos e consequências das inundações, não por meio do trabalho, mas pela introdução de normas, regulamentos e programas que visam, por exemplo, disciplinar o uso e ocupação do solo, implementação de sistemas de alerta e conscientização da população [6].

As medidas estruturais compreendem as obras de engenharia, que podem ser caracterizadas como medidas intensivas e extensivas [6]. Medidas intensivas, de acordo com sua finalidade, podem ser de quatro tipos:

•         Aceleração do fluxo de saída: dutos e obras relacionadas;

•         Retardo de fluxo: reservatórios (bacias de retenção / retenção), restauração de calhas naturais;

•         Desvio de fluxo: túneis de derivação e canais de desvio;

•         Ações individuais para tornar as edificações à prova de inundação.

Por outro lado, as medidas extensivas correspondem ao pequeno armazenamento de água na bacia, restauração da cobertura vegetal e controle da erosão do solo ao longo da bacia de drenagem [6].

Medidas estruturais podem criar uma sensação de falsa segurança e até mesmo induzir à expansão da ocupação das áreas de inundação. As ações não estruturais podem ser eficazes a custos menores e horizontes mais longos, bem como buscar disciplinar a ocupação territorial, o comportamento das pessoas e as atividades econômicas [6].

As medidas não estruturais podem ser agrupadas da seguinte forma [6]:

·        Ações para regular o uso e ocupação do solo;

·        Educação ambiental focada no controle da poluição difusa, erosão e desperdício;

·        Seguro-inundação;

·        Sistemas de aviso e previsão de cheias.

Ao delimitar áreas sujeitas à inundação dependendo do risco, é possível estabelecer um zoneamento e os respectivos regulamentos para a construção, ou para possíveis obras de proteção individual (como a instalação de comportas, portas estanques e outras) a serem incluídas em edifícios existentes. Da mesma forma, algumas áreas podem ser desapropriadas para serem usadas como praças, parques, estacionamentos e outros usos [6]. Em determinados casos em que as medidas estruturais são técnica ou economicamente inviáveis (ou mesmo intempestivas), as medidas não estruturais, como os sistemas de alerta, podem reduzir os danos esperados a curto prazo, com pequenos investimentos [6].

Questões relacionadas a medidas estruturais e não estruturais de prevenção de inundações foram tema proeminente na 2ª Cúpula da Água da Ásia-Pacífico em Chiang Mai. Há uma grande lacuna entre os grupos que preferem soluções “estruturais” à gestão de desastres e aqueles que preferem soluções “não estruturais”. As soluções estruturais incluem soluções projetadas, como redesenhar prédios e projetar barreiras físicas para eventos de desastres, a fim de reduzir os danos. As soluções não estruturais incluem soluções sociais, como alerta precoce, planejamento de evacuação e preparação para resposta a emergências [6].

Grupos estruturais, que geralmente são formados por engenheiros, insistem que somente soluções estruturais podem impedir perdas econômicas e contribuir para o desenvolvimento da nação. Por outro lado, os grupos não estruturais costumam alertar: Não confie em soluções de engenharia, porque em algum momento elas não funcionam. Advertências precoces, evacuações rápidas e respostas a emergências são investimentos fáceis. O termo “resiliência” foi recentemente introduzido no diálogo sobre gestão de desastres. A palavra implica que as pessoas devem aceitar os danos de um desastre e ter planos em vigor para a recuperação. Como você sabe, alerta, evacuação e resposta de emergência podem ajudar a salvar vidas; no entanto, não pode proteger propriedades e ativos físicos. Para grupos estruturais, as soluções não estruturais não são investimentos. Os investimentos devem contribuir para o desenvolvimento e, portanto, reduzir os gastos futuros. Soluções estruturais podem proteger a vida e a propriedade das pessoas [6]. É um falso dilema escolher entre medidas estruturais e não estruturais para lidar com inundações. Devemos optar pelas duas medidas. Medidas não estruturais devem ser tomadas em conjunto com medidas estruturais como cautela contra o fracasso deste último em fazê-lo. [6].

O IPCC das Nações Unidas advertiu que limitar suficientemente o aquecimento global provocado pelo homem exigirá mudanças rápidas, de longo alcance e sem precedentes em todos os aspectos da sociedade, a fim de evitar consequências globais dramáticas, incluindo o aumento do nível do mar, morte de recifes de corais e vítimas humanas devido ao calor extremo. O relatório especial – publicado pelo Painel Intergovernamental sobre Mudança Climática das Nações Unidas – avaliou o que será necessário para limitar o aumento da temperatura global a não mais de 2,7 °F (1,5 °C) acima dos níveis pré-industriais, de acordo com o Acordo de Paris de 2015. Os cientistas consideram que a temperatura é um ponto de inflexão no qual muitos efeitos severos do aquecimento global serão percebidos [7].

O relatório d IPCC chamou a mudança climática de uma ameaça urgente e potencialmente irreversível para as sociedades humanas e o planeta, e alertou que o atraso na ação tornaria impossível limitar aquecimento a 2,7 °F (1,5 °C). Enquanto o ritmo de mudança que seria necessário para limitar o aquecimento a [2,7 °F] pode ser encontrado no passado, não há precedente histórico para a escala das transições necessárias, particularmente para uma forma social e economicamente sustentável, informa o relatório. Resolver tais questões de velocidade e escala exigiria o apoio das pessoas, as intervenções do setor público e a cooperação do setor privado [7].

5. O planejamento das cidades requerido para enfrentar eventos climáticos extremos

Para lidar com eventos climáticos extremos, é imprescindível que os governos preparem planos de contingência para evacuarem as populações que possam ser atingidas em consequência de alagamentos, enchentes e inundações minimizando, desta forma, as mortes e os prejuízos delas decorrentes. Compete aos governos fiscalizarem e monitorarem as barragens e adotar medidas que impeçam o seu rompimento. Grande parte dos recursos deveria ser destinada à prevenção e não para a cobertura de prejuízos como ocorre atualmente porque gasta-se muito menos com a prevenção de alagamentos, enchentes e inundações do que com a reconstrução de edificações e infraestruturas. A prefeitura municipal tem um papel fundamental no sentido de evitar alagamentos, enchentes e inundações nas cidades. Para tanto, deve elaborar um plano diretor de desenvolvimento municipal que contemple, entre outras medidas, a adoção de soluções para minimizar ou eliminar os riscos enfrentados pela população, a identificação sistemática de áreas de risco a fim de estabelecer regras de assentamento da população. Além disso, deve fiscalizar as áreas de risco, evitando o assentamento perigoso, aplicar multas, quando o morador não atender às recomendações, elaborar plano de evacuação com sistema de alarme e indicar as áreas que são seguras para construção, com base no zoneamento. Todo morador deve ser informado do que e como fazer para não ser atingido pelas enchentes [1].

Três órgãos são essenciais nas ações de prevenção a enchentes em um município: 1) o órgão municipal de defesa civil que é responsável pela execução, coordenação e mobilização de todas as ações de defesa civil no município cuja principal atribuição é conhecer e identificar os riscos de desastres no município, preparando a população para enfrentá-los com a elaboração de planos específicos; 2) o órgão responsável pelo serviço de meteorologia responsável por informar a previsão do clima da cidade e/ou região; e, 3) os núcleos comunitários de defesa civil, que são pessoas que trabalham de forma voluntária nas atividades de defesa civil, para colaborar com o órgão da defesa civil visando a participação da comunidade preparando-a para dar pronta resposta aos desastres. Cabe ao prefeito determinar a criação do órgão da defesa civil [1].

A sustentabilidade é um termo utilizado para definir as ações e atividades humanas que buscam atender às necessidades presentes dos seres humanos sem comprometer o futuro das próximas gerações. No caso das inundações, a sustentabilidade é obtida em sua gestão quando o meio ambiente atingido por elas é preservado para uso das gerações atuais e futuras com a adoção de medidas de prevenção e precaução contra sua ocorrência. A sustentabilidade é obtida na gestão de enchentes com a elaboração de planos de prevenção, precaução e gestão de riscos, além da intensificação da fiscalização. Para lidar com os riscos de inundação é essencial que medidas de prevenção e precaução sejam adotadas para evitar eventos catastróficos. A Avaliação Preliminar de Impacto Ambiental de Inundações é um importante instrumento para a formulação de planos de defesa civil, pois é utilizado para avaliar, prever e prevenir maiores danos econômicos e sociais decorrentes de inundações. Cabe observar que as medidas preventivas ou de precaução deveriam fundamentar as políticas de gestão de risco e, sobretudo, devem estar presentes nas propostas e ações da defesa civil no enfrentamento das inundações [1].

O aumento do nível do mar é uma das mais conhecidas ameaças resultantes do aquecimento global e das mudanças climáticas. Enquanto a humanidade polui a atmosfera com gases de efeito estufa, o planeta se aquece. E, ao fazer isso, mantos de gelo e geleiras derretem e o aquecimento da água do mar se expande, aumentando o volume de água dos oceanos do mundo. Globalmente, o aumento do nível do mar pode ter um impacto significativo nos próximos anos. Os impactos potenciais do aumento do nível do mar incluem inundações, erosão de regiões costeiras e submersão de regiões planas ao longo da costa continental e nas ilhas.

De acordo com o Climate Central, uma organização sem fins lucrativos que analisa e relata a ciência do clima, composta por cientistas e jornalistas científicos, que realiza pesquisas científicas sobre mudanças climáticas e questões de energia, ao longo do século XXI, considera que os níveis globais do mar podem aumentar entre cerca de 61 cm e 2,13 m entre 2030 e 2100, se nada for feito para evitá-los. Mas, em alguns locais do planeta o nível do mar poderia subir até 3,5 metros. No caso extremo, o nível do mar poderá se elevar em mais de 7 metros se ocorrer o degelo das calotas polares, das cordilheiras e da Groenlândia [8]. Só o manto de gelo da Groenlândia, contém água suficiente para elevar o nível do mar em 7 metros segundo informa o artigo de John Sutter “Climate: 9 questions on rising seas” [9]. Projetar onde e quando esse aumento pode se traduzir em aumento de inundações parciais e inundações permanentes é importante para o planejamento de regiões e cidades costeiras.

Um novo modelo digital, CoastalDEM, da Climate Central foi utilizado para identificar áreas de inundação no planeta. Trata-se de modelo digital de elevação de alta precisão para áreas costeiras que reduz os erros médios para quase zero no amplamente usado SRTM DEM da NASA e revela ameaças de inundação três vezes maiores. CoastalDEM mostra que muitas das regiões costeiras do mundo estão em nível muito baixo e que o aumento do nível do mar pode afetar centenas de milhões de pessoas nas próximas décadas mais do que se pensava anteriormente. Com base nas projeções do nível do mar para 2050, a região do planeta que atualmente abriga 300 milhões de pessoas ficará abaixo da elevação de uma enchente costeira anual média. Em 2100, a região do planeta que agora abriga 200 milhões de pessoas poderia ficar permanentemente abaixo da linha da maré alta [8].

O que fazer para fazer frente à elevação do nível do mar? O First Street Foundation que publicou o artigo Solving for Sea Level Rise [8] oferece as respostas com propostas de soluções como as descritas a seguir:

Solução 1: Construindo Paredões

Uma solução que as cidades empregam para diminuir as enchentes de marés e de tempestades consiste na construção de paredões. Essas barreiras geralmente são construídas a uma altura de 1,52 metros a 1,83 metros acima do nível do mar. Quando os paredões ou quebra-mares envelhecem ou são danificados pela exposição constante à água salgada ou pelo impacto das ondas, eles precisam ser reforçados ou ubstituídos. Eles também precisam ser reforçados, substituídos ou construídos mais alto à medida que o nível do mar continua a subir.

Solução 2: Usando praias e dunas como barreiras

Semelhante a paredões, praias e dunas podem atuar como uma parede natural e reduzir o impacto da onda do mar e de tempestades. Quanto maior a praia ou maior a duna, mais água pode ser impedida de chegar às casas e estradas. Os governantes das cidades podem adicionar areia para aumentar as praias ou para evitar que sofram erosão. Usar este tipo de infraestrutura natural pode proteger as cidades contra inundações, enquanto mantém praias para a comunidade desfrutar.

Solução 3: Elevando o nível das rodovias

Elevar rodovias acima do nível do mar pode ajudar a drenar a água e reduzir as inundações das marés. Para garantir que as estradas mais altas não canalizem as águas das enchentes para as casas e lojas em elevações mais baixas, os governantes das cidades costumam fazer o bombeamento de águas pluviais para remover esse excesso de água.

Solução 4: Bombeamento de águas pluviais

Com mares mais altos, a água não escoa para o oceano tão facilmente. Os sistemas de drenagem são projetados para canalizar o excesso de água da chuva das ruas e drená-la para o mar, mas a pressão do aumento do nível do mar e das marés altas pode empurrar muita água para essas tubulações, fazendo com que a água vaze para as ruas. As bombas podem acelerar o processo de retirada de água das ruas, aspirando a água da enchente e lançando-a de volta ao mar.

Solução 5: Atualizando sistemas de esgoto

As inundações podem interromper os sistemas de esgoto e, em particular, ameaçar as fossas sépticas. Como a água salgada é corrosiva, ela pode danificar tanques e fazer com que o esgoto seja expelido, criando riscos à saúde da população. Os governantes das cidades podem atualizar os sistemas de esgoto para que a água da chuva não se infiltre na tubulação e atualizar tanques sépticos ou substituí-los por linhas de esgoto.

Solução 6: Criação de infraestrutura natural

As comunidades costeiras podem restaurar a infraestrutura natural, que pode atuar como uma proteção contra tempestades e inundações costeiras. Estruturas naturais como ilhas-barreira, recifes de coral, manguezais, ervas marinhas e pântanos salgados podem funcionar sozinhas ou em conjunto com a infraestrutura construída, como quebra-mares, para absorver a onda de tempestade. Esses projetos costumam ser econômicos, podem melhorar o ambiente natural para a comunidade e salvar habitats importantes.

Solução 7: Diminuindo o afundamento de terra

As cidades podem reduzir o afundamento de terras, limitando o bombeamento de água subterrânea e iniciando projetos-piloto para reverter o afundamento de terras preenchendo o espaço vazio em locais onde a água subterrânea foi bombeada.

Solução 8: Realocação planejada de populações

Esta solução é adotada em algumas áreas costeiras que estão sendo perdidas por tempestades, aumento do nível do mar, erosão e afundamento de terras. Embora as comunidades estejam implementando muitas das soluções disponíveis para ajudar a evitar a perda de terras, deve ser considerada a realocação de populações em casos extremos. Esta pode não ser a melhor opção para todas as comunidades costeiras que enfrentam a ameaça iminente de aumento do nível do mar, mas para algumas, é a melhor solução para manter os residentes seguros.

Além das soluções locais acima descritas, deveriam ser adotadas simultaneamente as medidas preconizadas pelo Acordo de Paris sobre o clima visando reduzir a emissão global dos gases de efeito estufa (dióxido de carbono, óxido nitroso, entre outros) para evitar o aquecimento global de mais de 2 graus Celsius (°C) até o fim do século XXI [8].

As cidades alcançarão melhores condições de enfrentar eventos climáticos extremos se forem transformadas em cidades inteligentes e sustentáveis. Construir cidades inteligentes e sustentáveis significa proporcionar gestão racional, melhoria da qualidade de vida para toda a população, desenvolvimento sustentável da cidade e democratização das decisões do governo com a participação de toda a população. Toda cidade alcança a condição de cidade inteligente quando seus gestores a consideram como um sistema e fazem o uso da tecnologia da informação em seu processo de planejamento e controle contando com o efetivo apoio de sua população. Toda cidade inteligente requer o uso da tecnologia da informação com o uso de vários dispositivos conectados à rede IoT (Internet das coisas) para gerir as operações e serviços da cidade de forma racional e conectar-se com seus cidadãos [3].

A Internet das Coisas (IoT, em inglês) se refere a uma revolução tecnológica que tem como objetivo conectar os itens usados do dia a dia à rede mundial de computadores e é uma das principais tendências globais seu uso na administração de uma cidade porque é aplicável em soluções que vão desde o monitoramento da iluminação pública, ao de pedestres, ciclistas, de veículos automotores, do transporte público, dos serviços de educação e saúde, entre outros. As aplicações da Internet das Coisas são quase infinitas. Além disso, a IoT vai levar a uma redução dos desperdícios de recursos públicos nas cidades. Impulsionada pela ascensão da Internet 5G, os dispositivos IoT podem trazer benefícios para pessoas, empresas e setor público. Mas vale ressaltar que, para ser considerada uma solução IoT, o sistema de administração de uma cidade precisa ter três características: 1) receber dados digitais originado em sensores; 2) se conectar com uma rede externa; e, 3) processar informações de forma automática, ou seja, sem intervenção humana [3].

Um nova revolução nos meios de comunicação está para ocorrer com o uso da Internet 5G em todo o mundo, representando até o momento o maior avanço nas comunicações após um longo processo histórico de evolução tecnológica. A Internet 5G produzirá gigantescos impactos na economia e na sociedade. Trata-se de uma plataforma de comunicações absolutamente inovadora e com características que permitem a comunicação máquina a máquina (M2M) com grande eficiência, eficácia, confiabilidade e segurança. Nesse sentido, é desenvolvida para a internet das coisas (IoT), ou seja para aplicações pessoais, mas também servem de plataforma de comunicações para o desenvolvimento de novas e revolucionárias aplicações para a indústria, para as cidades, para a agricultura, o transporte e os serviços. A Internet 5G será grande impulsionador para o desenvolvimento da Indústria 4.0 e o advento das cidades inteligentes porque tende a acelerar o desenvolvimento de tecnologias, como a Internet das Coisas (IoT), inteligência artificial e machine learning (aprendizado de máquina) cujo potencial não consistirá apenas em melhorar a conectividade para as pessoas, mas permitir a comunicação entre os objetos, o que pode transformar decisivamente os serviços e espaços urbanos [3].

A tecnologia da informação permite que os gestores da cidade interajam diretamente com seus órgãos executores e com a população e monitorem o que está acontecendo na cidade e como a cidade está evoluindo em tempo real. A tecnologia da informação deve ser usada para melhorar a qualidade, o desempenho e a interatividade dos serviços urbanos, reduzir custos e o consumo de recursos e aumentar o contato entre os cidadãos e o governo. Uma cidade inteligente pode estar mais preparada para responder aos desafios enfrentados pelos seus gestores e por sua população. Toda cidade alcançará a condição de cidade inteligente quando forem conquistados os objetivos de humanização da cidade com a melhoria da qualidade de vida para toda a população, de desenvolvimento sustentável da cidade e de democratização das decisões do governo com a participação de toda a população [3].

A melhoria da qualidade de vida da população depende das condições de sua existência quanto à oferta de emprego, à moradia, ao saneamento básico, à infraestrutura urbana, à mobilidade urbana e ao acesso aos serviços de educação, cultura, saúde e lazer. O desenvolvimento sustentável de uma cidade só será alcançado quando for evitada a degradação dos recursos naturais e existirem políticas claras e abrangentes para saneamento, coleta e tratamento de lixo, gestão da água, com coleta, tratamento, economia e reuso, sistemas de transporte que privilegiem o transporte de massa com qualidade e segurança, ações que preservem e ampliem áreas verdes, o uso de energias limpas e renováveis e, sobretudo, administração pública transparente e compartilhada com a sociedade civil organizada. Por sua vez, a democratização das decisões do governo com a participação de toda a população só existirá quando ela se envolver não apenas no fornecimento de dados, mas também, decidir sobre os rumos da cidade [3].

Entre as cidades inteligentes do mundo destacam-se: 1) Amsterdã, que possui, desde 2009, uma plataforma interconectada através de dispositivos sem fio para aprimorar as habilidades de tomada de decisão da cidade em tempo real, reduzir o tráfego, economizar energia e melhorar a segurança pública; 2) Copenhague, que, em 2014, conquistou o prestigioso World Smart Cities Award por sua estratégia de desenvolvimento de cidade inteligente voltada para a melhoria da qualidade do ar, da habitabilidade e do fluxo de tráfego; 3) Dubai, que tem projeto para torná-la cidade inteligente em 2030, com iniciativas em transporte que inclui veículos sem motorista, digitalização de transações do governo, negócios e clientes; e, 4) Estocolmo, que visa criar uma estrutura de TI verde para reduzir o impacto ambiental, aumentar a eficiência energética dos edifícios e monitoramento do tráfego, entre outros objetivos [3].

É uma necessidade imperiosa tornar as cidades inteligentes  porque a cidade se tornou o principal habitat da humanidade. Pela primeira vez na história humana, mais da metade da população vive nas cidades. Este número, 3,3 bilhões de pessoas, deverá ultrapassar a marca de 5 bilhões até 2030. No início do século XX, a população urbana não excedeu 220 milhões de pessoas. O acesso a empregos, serviços, instalações públicas e maior bem-estar econômico e social é o seu maior atrativo para todos os que para ela se dirigem [3]. Grande parte dos problemas ambientais globais tem origem nas cidades o que faz com que dificilmente se possa atingir a sustentabilidade ao nível global sem torná-las inteligentes [3].

Impactos significativos no meio ambiente ocorrem devido aos modos de produção e consumo nos espaços urbanizados. Poluições, engarrafamentos, violência, desemprego, etc., são comuns nas cidades. A poluição da água é causada principalmente pela liberação de efluentes industriais e domésticos não tratados. A poluição do ar é um grande problema detectado nas cidades que resulta da liberação de gases tóxicos para a atmosfera. O fluxo intenso de carros e indústrias é o principal responsável por esse tipo de poluição.  Outros problemas ambientais resultantes da urbanização são impermeabilização do solo, poluição visual, poluição sonora, mudança climática, chuva ácida, ausência de saneamento ambiental, falta de adequada destinação e tratamento de resíduos sólidos, efeito estufa, entre outros. A falta de planejamento urbano eficaz compromete a qualidade de vida da população urbana. O crescimento desordenado das cidades gera a ocupação de lugares impróprios para habitação de populações de baixa renda, como aqueles de elevada declividade, fundos do vale, entre outros [3].

A acelerada urbanização e crescimento das cidades, especialmente a partir de meados do século XX, promoveu mudanças fisionômicas no planeta, mais do que qualquer outra atividade humana. É nas cidades que as dimensões sociais, econômicas e ambientais do desenvolvimento sustentável convergem mais intensamente, fazendo com que se torne necessário estruturar cidades inteligentes que sejam pensadas, gerenciadas e planejadas de acordo com o modelo de desenvolvimento sustentável que tem por objetivo atender as necessidades atuais da população da Terra sem comprometer seus recursos naturais, legando-os às gerações futuras. Significa dizer que o modelo de desenvolvimento inteligente e sustentável nas cidades deve ser adotado objetivando a compatibilização dos fatores econômico e social com o meio ambiente [3].

Na era contemporânea, quando os problemas do aquecimento global podem levar à mudança climática catastrófica em escala planetária, cada cidade precisa ter um plano de adaptação às mudanças climáticas, especialmente aquelas sujeitas a eventos extremos. As cidades costeiras, por exemplo, devem ter planejamento contra o aumento previsível do nível dos oceanos e se preocupar com deslizamentos de terra nas encostas, inundações, etc., resultantes de chuvas inclementes. Em suma, elas devem ter flexibilidade e adaptabilidade aos novos requisitos climáticos. É necessário redesenhar o crescimento urbano das cidades para integrá-lo ao ambiente natural e recuperar suas praias e seus rios agora comprometidos com o lançamento de esgotos, para que as cidades não recebam uma resposta hostil do meio ambiente natural [3].

Impactos significativos no meio ambiente ocorrem devido aos modos de produção e consumo nos espaços urbanizados. Poluições, engarrafamentos, violência, desemprego, etc., são comuns nas cidades. A poluição da água é causada principalmente pela liberação de efluentes industriais e domésticos não tratados. A poluição do ar é um grande problema detectado nas cidades que resulta da liberação de gases tóxicos para a atmosfera. O fluxo intenso de carros e indústrias é o principal responsável por esse tipo de poluição.  Outros problemas ambientais resultantes da urbanização são impermeabilização do solo, poluição visual, poluição sonora, mudança climática, chuva ácida, ausência de saneamento ambiental, falta de adequada destinação e tratamento de resíduos sólidos, efeito estufa, entre outros. A falta de planejamento urbano eficaz compromete a qualidade de vida da população urbana. O crescimento desordenado das cidades gera a ocupação de lugares impróprios para habitação de populações de baixa renda, como aqueles de elevada declividade, fundos do vale, entre outros [3].

A acelerada urbanização e crescimento das cidades, especialmente a partir de meados do século XX, promoveu mudanças fisionômicas no planeta, mais do que qualquer outra atividade humana. É nas cidades que as dimensões sociais, econômicas e ambientais do desenvolvimento sustentável convergem mais intensamente, fazendo com que se torne necessário estruturar cidades inteligentes que sejam pensadas, gerenciadas e planejadas de acordo com o modelo de desenvolvimento sustentável que tem por objetivo atender as necessidades atuais da população da Terra sem comprometer seus recursos naturais, legando-os às gerações futuras. Significa dizer que o modelo de desenvolvimento inteligente e sustentável nas cidades deve ser adotado objetivando a compatibilização dos fatores econômico e social com o meio ambiente [3].

Afinal, o que caracteriza uma cidade inteligente e sustentável? É a cidade ser gerida racionalmente com o apoio da população com o uso da tecnologia da informação, que assegura o direito da população à terra urbana, à moradia, ao saneamento ambiental, à infraestrutura urbana, ao transporte e aos serviços públicos, ao trabalho e ao lazer, para a atual e futuras gerações e que assegura o direito da população a decidir sobre o destino de sua cidade. Transformar uma cidade em cidade inteligente significa usar a tecnologia da informação para facilitar a gestão da cidade com a colaboração da população e contar com sua participação nas tomadas de decisão. O futuro das cidades e de suas populações depende, portanto, do que seja realizado no sentido de adotar um novo modelo de gestão com o uso da tecnologia da informação, promover a melhoria da qualidade de vida para toda a população, promover o desenvolvimento sustentável da cidade e promover a democratização das decisões do governo com a participação de toda a população [3].

Os fatos da vida estão mostrando cada vez mais a necessidade de que o paradigma que tem orientado o desenvolvimento da sociedade humana desde a 1ª Revolução Industrial tenha que ser profundamente modificado. É por isso que o atual modelo de sociedade deve ser substituído pelo modelo de desenvolvimento sustentável, entre outras medidas. Algumas medidas precisam ser implementadas para impedir o ritmo atual do aquecimento global [4]:

• Reduzir as emissões de carbono em 45%

Até 2030, as emissões globais de dióxido de carbono devem ser 45% menores do que em 2010, segundo o relatório. E as emissões de dióxido de carbono devem ser zero em torno de 2075, o que significa que a quantidade de dióxido de carbono que entra na atmosfera é igual à quantidade a ser removida. Até 2050, as emissões de outros gases causadores do efeito estufa, incluindo metano e negro de carbono, devem ser reduzidas em 35%, em relação à taxa de 2010. As emissões precisariam diminuir rapidamente em todos os principais setores da sociedade, incluindo edifícios, indústria, transporte, energia e agricultura, silvicultura e outros usos do solo.

• Remover o dióxido de carbono do ar

Além de reduzir as emissões de dióxido de carbono, as medidas de remoção de dióxido de carbono relatadas incluem o plantio de novas árvores e a captura e armazenamento de carbono, o processo pelo qual o dióxido de carbono é capturado e impedido de entrar na atmosfera. A maioria das medidas atuais e potenciais de remoção de dióxido de carbono podem ter impactos significativos na terra, energia, água ou nutrientes, se implantadas em larga escala.

• Usar 85% de energia renovável e parar de usar carvão inteiramente

O relatório recomendou mudanças de longo alcance no uso da terra, planejamento urbano, sistemas de infraestrutura e uso de energia – mudanças que serão “sem precedentes em termos de escala”. Os cientistas do clima disseram que as fontes de energia renováveis terão que responder por 70% a 85% da produção de eletricidade até 2050. O uso do carvão deve diminuir acentuadamente e deve responder por quase 0% da eletricidade global, e gás apenas 8%. Embora reconhecendo os desafios e as diferenças entre as opções e as circunstâncias nacionais, a viabilidade política, econômica, social e técnica da energia solar, energia eólica e tecnologias de armazenamento de eletricidade melhoraram substancialmente nos últimos anos. Essas melhorias sinalizam uma possível transição do sistema na geração de eletricidade.

• Plantar novas florestas iguais ao tamanho do Canadá

Os cientistas recomendam que até 3 milhões de milhas quadradas de pastagens e até 1,9 milhões de milhas quadradas de terras agrícolas sem pastagens sejam convertidas em até 2,7 milhões de milhas quadradas para culturas energéticas, que podem ser usadas para produzir biocombustíveis. Isso equivaleria a uma quantidade de terra um pouco menor do que o tamanho da Austrália. O relatório também recomenda a adição de 3,9 milhões de milhas quadradas de florestas até 2050, em relação a 2010 – que é aproximadamente do tamanho do Canadá.

REFERÊNCIAS

1.       ALCOFORADO, Fernando. Como enfrentar eventos climáticos extremos nas cidades do Brasil. Disponível no website <https://www.academia.edu/113388354/COMO_ENFRENTAR_EVENTOS_CLIM%C3%81TICOS_EXTREMOS_NAS_CIDADES_DO_BRASIL>.

2.        ALCOFORADO, Fernando. Inundações das cidades e mudança climática global. Disponível no website <https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/inunda%C3%A7%C3%B5es-das-cidades-e-mudan%C3%A7a-clim%C3%A1tica-global-fernando-alcoforado/>.

3.       ALCOFORADO, Fernando. Como construir cidades inteligentes e sustentáveis. Disponível no website <https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/como-construir-cidades-inteligentes-e-sustent%C3%A1veis-alcoforado/>.

4.       ALCOFORADO, Fernando. Mudança climática catastrófica global exige novo modelo de sociedade. Disponível no website <https://www.academia.edu/42952549/MUDAN%C3%87A_CLIM%C3%81TICA_CATASTR%C3%93FICA_EXIGE_NOVO_MODELO_DE_SOCIEDADE>.

5.      ALCOFORADO, Fernando. Sustainability in flood management. Disponível no website <https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/sustainability-flood-management-fernando-a-g-alcoforado/>. É capítulo do livro Flood Handbook (CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, United States, 2022).

6.      ALCOFORADO, Fernando. Como preparar as cidades contra eventos climáticos extremos. Disponível no website <https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/como-preparar-cidades-contra-eventos-clim%C3%A1ticos-fernando-alcoforado/>.

7.     ALCOFORADO, Fernando. Estratégias para lidar com a mudança climática global. Disponível no website <https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/estrat%C3%A9gias-para-lidar-com-mudan%C3%A7as-clim%C3%A1ticas-alcoforado/>.

8.     FIRST STREET FOUNDATION. Solving for Sea Level Rise. Disponível no website <https://medium.com/firststreet/solving-for-sea-level-rise-b95600751525>.

9.     SUTTER, John. Climate: 9 questions on rising seas, Disponível no website <https://edition.cnn.com/2015/05/05/opinions/sutter-sea-level-climate/index.html>.

* Fernando Alcoforado, 84, condecorado com a Medalha do Mérito da Engenharia do Sistema CONFEA/CREA, membro da SBPC- Sociedade Brasileira para o Progresso da Ciência, do IPB- Instituto Politécnico da Bahia e da Academia Baiana de Educação,  engenheiro pela Escola Politécnica da UFBA e doutor em Planejamento Territorial e Desenvolvimento Regional pela Universidade de Barcelona, professor universitário (Engenharia, Economia e Administração) e consultor nas áreas de planejamento estratégico, planejamento empresarial, planejamento regional e planejamento de sistemas energéticos, foi Assessor do Vice-Presidente de Engenharia e Tecnologia da LIGHT S.A. Electric power distribution company do Rio de Janeiro, Coordenador de Planejamento Estratégico do CEPED- Centro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento da Bahia, Subsecretário de Energia do Estado da Bahia, Secretário do Planejamento de Salvador, é autor dos livros Globalização (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC- O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem Mundial (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2000), Os condicionantes do desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de doutorado. Universidade de Barcelona,http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globalização e Desenvolvimento (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século XX e Objetivos Estratégicos na Era Contemporânea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The Necessary Conditions of the Economic and Social Development- The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2010), Amazônia Sustentável- Para o progresso do Brasil e combate ao aquecimento global (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2011), Os Fatores Condicionantes do Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2012), Energia no Mundo e no Brasil- Energia e Mudança Climática Catastrófica no Século XXI (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2015), As Grandes Revoluções Científicas, Econômicas e Sociais que Mudaram o Mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2016), A Invenção de um novo Brasil (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2017), Esquerda x Direita e a sua convergência (Associação Baiana de Imprensa, Salvador, 2018, em co-autoria), Como inventar o futuro para mudar o mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2019), A humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência (Editora Dialética, São Paulo, 2021), A escalada da ciência e da tecnologia ao longo da história e sua contribuição ao progresso e à sobrevivência da humanidade (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2022), de capítulo do livro Flood Handbook (CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, United States, 2022), How to protect human beings from threats to their existence and avoid the extinction of humanity (Generis Publishing, Europe, Republic of Moldova, Chișinău, 2023) e A revolução da educação necessária ao Brasil na era contemporânea (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2023).

LES OBSTACLES QUI ENTRAVENT LE DÉVELOPPEMENT DU BRÉSIL À L’ÈRE CONTEMPORAINE ET LEURS CONSÉQUENCES POLITIQUES

Fernando Alcoforado*

Cet article vise à démontrer que le gouvernement Lula est confronté à deux défis majeurs dans ses efforts pour promouvoir le développement économique et social du Brésil, qu’il doit surmonter pour empêcher les extrémistes de droite de reconquérir la présidence de la République et d’élargir leur participation aux gouvernements des États et au Congrès national et mettre en pratique leur infâme projet antisocial et antinational. Le premier défi, de nature économique, est représenté par les obstacles qui empêchent le gouvernement brésilien de réaliser des investissements publics dans l’expansion de l’économie et de coordonner ses politiques monétaires et fiscales, et le deuxième défi, de nature politique, est représenté par les obstacles existant au Congrès national imposés par des politiciens et des partis rétrogrades qui empêchent le gouvernement brésilien de mettre en œuvre un projet national développementaliste. Les avancées politiques, économiques et sociales actuelles et futures du Brésil ne seront possibles que si le gouvernement Lula réussit à surmonter ces obstacles.

L’incapacité de l’État brésilien à réaliser des investissements publics dans l’expansion de l’économie fait partie de la stratégie du capitalisme néolibéral mondialisé visant à le transformer en État minimum depuis 1990. État minimum est le nom donné à l’idée de ​​capitalisme néolibéral selon lequel le rôle de l’État au sein de la société devrait être aussi réduit que possible, en réalisant uniquement les activités considérées comme « essentielles » et de premier ordre. La doctrine néolibérale prône la participation la plus réduite possible de l’État à l’économie, en privilégiant le secteur privé. En conséquence, les effets directs et indirects attendus de la réduction de la taille de l’État seraient la réduction de la fiscalité, la libéralisation du marché, la privatisation des activités économiques, la débureaucratisation et un environnement plus favorable aux entreprises.

La stratégie néolibérale visant à transformer l’État brésilien en un État minimal a commencé en 1990 sous le gouvernement de Fernando Collor et a culminé, entre autres maux économiques, avec l’adoption de la politique de plafonnement des dépenses publiques sous le gouvernement de Michel Temer, dont l’objectif central était pour empêcher le manque de contrôle des comptes publics et l’adoption de l’autonomie de la Banque centrale sous le gouvernement de Jair Bolsonaro dans le but de contrôler l’inflation. Avec la politique de plafonnement des dépenses publiques, l’État brésilien a été limité dans sa capacité à promouvoir l’investissement public avec l’asphyxie financière à laquelle il était soumis et contribué pour unviable la capacité de l’État brésilien à adopter des politiques économiques, fiscales et monétaires, articulées entre elles avec l’autonomie de la Banque centrale. En plus d’être confronté à des restrictions dans sa capacité d’investissement, l’État brésilien a également perdu la capacité d’agir dans la recherche de la stabilité économique au Brésil, étant donné que c’est par une augmentation des dépenses ou des investissements publics que le gouvernement fédéral pourra compenser pour la baisse éventuelle de la consommation des ménages (C), de l’investissement privé (I) et des exportations (X) et l’augmentation des importations (M) pour maintenir la croissance du PIB = C+I+ G+X-M ou, avec la réduction des dépenses publiques pour compenser l’éventuelle augmentation de la consommation des ménages (C), de l’investissement privé (I) et des exportations (X) et la baisse des importations (M).

Si la politique de plafonnement des dépenses publiques de l’Union était maintenue, la principale tendance serait que, d’ici quelques années, les dépenses du gouvernement fédéral contribueraient de moins en moins à la formation du PIB du Brésil, compromettant ainsi le développement économique et social du pays, étant donné que le gouvernement fédéral ne pourrait pas augmenter les dépenses publiques pour promouvoir la croissance économique du Brésil ou lutter contre la récession en adoptant des mesures compensatoires d’un point de vue macroéconomique. C’est la raison pour laquelle l’inclusion de la politique de plafonnement des dépenses dans la Constitution fédérale constitue un crime contre le développement du Brésil, c’est-à-dire un crime contre le pays. La politique de plafonnement des dépenses publiques insérée dans la Constitution du Brésil sur la base de la PEC 55/2016 sous le gouvernement de Michel Temer était un crime commis contre le développement du Brésil car elle cherchait à limiter les dépenses publiques pour les 20 prochaines années, à partir de 2017, qui ne serait réajusté qu’en fonction de l’inflation officielle de l’année précédente avec possibilité de révision à partir de la dixième année de validité. Cela signifie que le gouvernement fédéral serait empêché de préparer le budget de l’Union avec une valeur supérieure à celle de l’année précédente et ne pourrait corriger ses valeurs qu’en fonction de l’inflation.

Avec la politique de plafonnement des dépenses, certaines dépenses publiques pourraient augmenter plus que l’inflation, à condition qu’elles soient compensées par de réelles réductions dans d’autres domaines. Cela impliquait que, dans la pratique, les dépenses publiques ne pourraient pas augmenter pendant leur mandat de 20 ans, c’est-à-dire qu’elles seraient gelées pendant 20 ans, compromettant les investissements publics dans les infrastructures énergétiques, les transports, les communications, l’éducation, la santé, l’assainissement de base et habitation  populaire nécessaires au développement économique et social du Brésil. Cela signifie que si la politique de plafonnement des dépenses publiques était maintenue, le gouvernement Lula ne serait pas viable. Pour tenter d’alléger le fardeau de l’héritage maudit de la politique de plafonnement des dépenses adoptée sous les gouvernements Temer et Bolsonaro, le gouvernement Lula a institué ce qu’on appelle le cadre budgétaire, également appelé « nouveau plafond des dépenses », désormais conditionné à l’augmentation des recettes publiques. Avec le cadre budgétaire, le gouvernement Lula pourra augmenter les dépenses publiques tant qu’il y aura une augmentation des recettes cette année et dans les années à venir pour équilibrer les comptes du gouvernement. Il s’agit d’un immense défi puisque l’augmentation des recettes publiques dépend de l’expansion de l’économie qui, à son tour, dépend de l’augmentation des investissements publics et privés. Autrement dit, en cas de baisse des recettes publiques, le gouvernement Lula ne sera pas en mesure de réaliser les investissements publics nécessaires au développement du Brésil.

En plus de l’absurde PEC 55/2016 du gouvernement de Michel Temer, qui fixait le plafond des dépenses publiques, le Congrès national a approuvé la loi complémentaire 179/2021 pendant le gouvernement de Jair Bolsonaro, qui a établi l’autonomie de la Banque centrale, dont le président et les directeurs ont des mandats d’une durée fixe de quatre ans, ne coïncidant pas avec celui du Président de la République, les deux mesures visant à neutraliser l’État brésilien dans l’adoption et l’exécution de politiques fiscales et monétaires. Avec l’autonomie de la Banque centrale, le Congrès national a rendu impossible au gouvernement fédéral d’adopter des politiques économiques fiscales et monétaires coordonnées, comme c’est le cas actuellement, car la politique monétaire récessive imposée par la Banque centrale avec des taux d’intérêt extrêmement élevés, le plus grand du monde, rend le efforts irréalisables du gouvernement Lula pour promouvoir la reprise du développement national. En outre, il est évident que l’adoption par la Banque centrale des taux d’intérêt comme méthode de contrôle de l’inflation n’a pas fonctionné au Brésil. Les taux d’intérêt Selic extrêmement élevés adoptés par la Banque centrale n’ont pas contribué à maintenir l’inflation en dessous des objectifs d’inflation établis de 2008 à 2015 et également en 2021. Les taux d’inflation n’ont été inférieurs aux objectifs d’inflation qu’entre 2017 et 2021, essentiellement en raison de la gigantesque crise économique qui s’est produit à partir de 2016 au Brésil et l’impact de la nouvelle pandémie de coronavirus qui a contribué à la baisse de la demande globale de l’économie brésilienne et non pas à cause des taux d’intérêt Selic imposés par la Banque centrale.

L’inefficacité de la Banque centrale avec sa politique d’augmentation des taux d’intérêt Selic pour lutter contre l’inflation au Brésil a été prouvée. L’inefficacité de la méthode d’augmentation des taux d’intérêt Selic dans la lutte contre l’inflation au Brésil, qui ne profite qu’aux rentiers, met à l’ordre du jour la nécessité de remplacer cette méthode par une action directe efficace du gouvernement fédéral sur les facteurs qui génèrent l’inflation avec l’adoption de mesures concrètes visant à éliminer l’inflation de la demande, l’inflation des coûts, l’inflation monétaire, l’inflation inertielle et la possibilité d’une hyperinflation, lorsqu’elles se produisent. Le gouvernement Lula devrait lutter contre l’inflation de la demande de biens et de services en planifiant l’économie en collaboration avec le secteur productif de manière à ce que la production nationale réponde à la demande intérieure de biens et de services. Lorsque la production nationale est insuffisante, le gouvernement Lula devrait s’engager à importer ce dont le pays a besoin. Le gouvernement Lula devrait lutter contre l’inflation des coûts de production en surveillant l’évolution des prix des salaires, des matières premières, des intrants et des taxes pour adopter des mesures qui contribuent à éviter leur augmentation sans une augmentation correspondante de la productivité et encouragent une augmentation de la productivité de la production agricole, l’industrie, le commerce, les services, les systèmes de production d’énergie électrique et pétrolière et le transport de marchandises, ainsi que l’augmentation de la productivité du gouvernement à tous les niveaux. Il convient de noter qu’augmenter la productivité signifie augmenter la production au fil du temps, avec la moindre utilisation des ressources, au moindre coût possible et en éliminant les dépenses et les gaspillages inutiles. Cet objectif peut être atteint grâce à l’utilisation de systèmes de production plus modernes et à la rationalisation des méthodes de travail utilisées. Pour éviter l’inflation monétaire, le gouvernement doit éviter l’émission incontrôlée de devises. Pour éviter une inflation inertielle, il faut éviter l’indexation des prix. Pour éviter l’hyperinflation, il faut éviter l’inflation inertielle. Malheureusement, aucune de ces mesures de lutte contre l’inflation ne peut être adoptée par le gouvernement Lula avec l’existence d’une Banque centrale indépendante.

Outre le premier défi, d’ordre économique avec les obstacles représentés par la politique de plafonnement des dépenses, malgré la flexibilité offerte par le cadre budgétaire et l’existence d’une Banque centrale indépendante, qui rendent le gouvernement brésilien incapable de coordonner ses politiques fiscales et monétaires, réaliser des investissements publics dans l’expansion de l’économie et obtenir la stabilité macroéconomique, le gouvernement Lula est confronté au deuxième défi majeur, de nature politique, représenté par le fait de ne pas avoir de majorité au Congrès national, ce qui empêche le gouvernement fédéral de mettre en pratique son projet de nacional développementaliste et répondre pleinement aux revendications sociales. En plus d’être composé principalement de politiciens conservateurs et opportunistes, peu engagés dans les intérêts de l’immense majorité de la population brésilienne, le Congrès national compte également parmi ses membres des partis et des politiciens d’extrême droite qui cherchent à neutraliser le gouvernement brésilien pour mettre en œuvre un projet de national développementaliste et éviter de mettre en œuvre des projets à caractère social. La situation politique actuelle au Brésil démontre qu’il ne suffit pas d’élire un président de la République engagé dans le progrès du pays. Outre l’élection d’un président progressiste, il faut également renouveler le Congrès national en élisant la majorité des représentants du Brésil des personnes engagées dans les avancées politiques, économiques et sociales pour surmonter les obstacles qui entravent le développement du Brésil.

Pour que les forces progressistes du Brésil puissent réélire le président Lula aux élections présidentielles de 2026 et obtenir une majorité parlementaire au Congrès national engagée en faveur du progrès politique, économique et social, le gouvernement Lula devra réussir sur le front économique, en promouvant l’expansion de l’économie, accroître la création d’emplois et de revenus de manière significative, maîtriser l’inflation et répondre au maximum aux revendications sociales qui profitent avant tout aux populations mal desservies du pays. En outre, les forces progressistes doivent s’engager, à partir des élections municipales de 2024, à élire le maximum de maires et de conseillers engagé en faveur des progrès politiques, économiques et sociaux du Brésil. Telles sont les conditions pour empêcher, en 2026, les extrémistes de droite de reconquérir la présidence de la République, d’élargir leur participation aux gouvernements des États et au Congrès national et de mettre en pratique leur infâme projet antisocial et antinational.

​* Fernando Alcoforado, 84, a reçoit la Médaille du Mérite en Ingénierie du Système CONFEA / CREA, membre de la SBPC – Société Brésilienne pour le Progrès des Sciences, de l’IPB – Institut Polytechnique de Bahia et de l’Académie de l’Education de Bahia,, ingénieur de l’École Polytechnique UFBA et docteur en Planification du Territoire et Développement Régional de l’Université de Barcelone, professeur d’Université (Ingénierie, Économie et Administration) et consultant dans les domaines de la planification stratégique, de la planification d’entreprise, planification du territoire et urbanisme, systèmes énergétiques, a été Conseiller du Vice-Président Ingénierie et Technologie chez LIGHT S.A. Entreprise de distribution d’énergie électrique de Rio de Janeiro, coordinatrice de la planification stratégique du CEPED – Centre de recherche et de développement de Bahia, sous-secrétaire à l’énergie de l’État de Bahia, secrétaire à la  planification de Salvador, il est l’auteur de ouvrages Globalização (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC- O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem Mundial (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2000), Os condicionantes do desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de doutorado. Universidade de Barcelona,http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globalização e Desenvolvimento (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século XX e Objetivos Estratégicos na Era Contemporânea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The  Necessary Conditions of the Economic and Social Development- The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2010), Amazônia Sustentável- Para o progresso do Brasil e combate ao aquecimento global (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2011), Os Fatores Condicionantes do Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2012), Energia no Mundo e no Brasil- Energia e Mudança Climática Catastrófica no Século XXI (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2015), As Grandes Revoluções Científicas, Econômicas e Sociais que Mudaram o Mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2016), A Invenção de um novo Brasil (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2017), Esquerda x Direita e a sua convergência (Associação Baiana de Imprensa, Salvador, 2018), Como inventar o futuro para mudar o mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2019), A humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência (Editora Dialética, São Paulo, 2021), A escalada da ciência e da tecnologia e sua contribuição ao progresso e à sobrevivência da humanidade (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2022), est l’auteur d’un chapitre du livre Flood Handbook (CRC Press, Boca Raton, Floride, États-Unis, 2022), How to protect human beings from threats to their existence and avoid the extinction of humanity (Generis Publishing, Europe, Republic of Moldova, Chișinău, 2023) et A revolução da educação necessária ao  Brasil na era contemporânea (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2023).​

THE OBSTACLES THAT IMPEDE THE DEVELOPMENT OF BRAZIL IN THE CONTEMPORARY ERA AND THEIR POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES 

Fernando Alcoforado*

This article aims to demonstrate that the Lula government is faced with two major challenges in its effort to promote the economic and social development of Brazil that needs to be overcome to prevent right-wing extremists from regaining the Presidency of the Republic and expanding their participation in the state governments and in the National Congress and put into practice their nefarious anti-social and anti-national project. The first challenge, of an economic nature, is represented by the obstacles that prevent the Brazilian government from making public investments in the expansion of the economy and coordinating its monetary and fiscal policies, and the second challenge, of a political nature, is represented by the obstacles existing in the National Congress imposed by retrogrades  politicians and parties that disable the Brazilian government from implementing a national developmentalist project. Brazil’s political, economic and social advances in the present and future will only be achieved if the Lula government is successful in overcoming these obstacles.

The inability of the State in Brazil to make public investments in the expansion of the economy is part of the strategy of globalized neoliberal capitalism to transform it into a minimum State since 1990. Minimum State is the name given to the idea of neoliberal capitalism that the role of the State within of society must be as small as possible, carrying out only those activities considered “essential” and of the first order. Neoliberal doctrine preaches the smallest possible participation of the State in the economy, giving preference to the private sector. As a result, the expected direct and indirect effects of reducing the size of the State would be the reduction of taxation, market liberalization, privatization of economic activities, de-bureaucratization and a more business-friendly environment.

The neoliberalism strategy to transform the Brazilian State into a minimal State began in 1990 during the Fernando Collor government, which, among other economic evils it produced, culminated in the adoption of the public spending ceiling policy during the Michel Temer government, whose central objective was to prevent the lack of control of public accounts and the adoption of Central Bank autonomy during the Jair Bolsonaro government with the aim of controlling inflation. With the public spending ceiling policy, the Brazilian State was limited in its ability to promote public investment with the financial asphyxiation to which it was subjected and made the Brazilian State’s ability to adopt economic, fiscal and monetary policies, articulated with each other with the autonomy of the Central Bank. In addition to facing restrictions in its investment capacity, the Brazilian State has also lost the capacity to act in the search for economic stability in Brazil, given that it is with an increase in public spending or investment that the federal government will be able to compensate for the eventual drop in the household consumption (C), private investment (I) and exports (X) and the increase in imports (M) to maintain GDP growth = C+I+ G+X-M or, with the reduction in public spending, compensate the eventual increase in household consumption (C), private investment (I) and exports (X) and the fall in imports (M).

If the public spending ceiling policy for the Union were maintained, the main trend would be that, within a few years, federal government spending would have an increasingly smaller share in the formation of Brazil’s GDP, compromising economic and social development of the Country, given that the federal government would be prevented from increasing public spending to promote Brazil’s economic growth or combat the recession with the adoption of compensatory measures from a macroeconomic point of view. This is the reason why the inclusion of the spending cap policy in the federal Constitution constituted a crime against the development of Brazil, that is, a crime against the country. The public spending ceiling policy inserted in the Constitution of Brazil based on PEC 55/2016 during the Michel Temer government was a crime committed against the development of Brazil because it sought to limit public spending for the next 20 years, starting in 2017, which they would only be readjusted based on the previous year’s official inflation with the possibility of revision from the tenth year of validity. This means that the federal government would be prevented from preparing the Union budget with a value greater than that of the previous year and could only correct its values according to inflation.

With the spending cap policy, some public spending could grow more than inflation, as long as they were compensated with real cuts in other areas. This implied that, in practice, public spending could not grow during its 20-year term, that is, public spending would be frozen for 20 years, compromising public investments in energy infrastructure, transport, communications, education, health, basic sanitation and popular housing necessary for the economic and social development of Brazil. This means that if the public spending ceiling policy were maintained, the Lula government would be unviable. In an attempt to alleviate the burden of the cursed legacy of the spending ceiling policy adopted during the Temer and Bolsonaro governments, the Lula government instituted the so-called fiscal framework that has also been called the “new spending ceiling” now conditioned to the increase in public collection. With the fiscal framework, the Lula government will be able to increase public spending as long as there is an increase in public collection this year and in future years to balance the government’s accounts. This is an immense challenge since the increase in public revenue depends on the expansion of the economy which, in turn, depends on the increase in public and private investments. In other words, if there is a drop in public revenue, the Lula government will not be able to make the public investments necessary for Brazil’s development.

In addition to the absurd PEC 55/2016 during the Michel Temer government, which established the public spending ceiling, the National Congress during the Jair Bolsonaro government approved Complementary Law 179/2021, which established the autonomy of the Central Bank, whose president and directors have mandates fixed periods of four years, not coinciding with that of the President of the Republic, both measures aimed at incapacitating the Brazilian State in the adoption and execution of fiscal and monetary policies. With the autonomy of the Central Bank, the National Congress made it impossible for the federal government to adopt coordinated fiscal and monetary economic policies, as is currently the case, as the recessive monetary policy imposed by the Central Bank with extremely high interest rates, the largest in the world, makes the effort unfeasible of the Lula government to promote the resumption of national development. Furthermore, there is an obvious fact that the Central Bank’s adoption of interest rates as a method of controlling inflation has not worked in Brazil. The extremely high Selic interest rates adopted by the Central Bank did not contribute to keeping inflation below the inflation targets established from 2008 to 2015 and also in 2021. Inflation rates were only below the inflation targets from 2017 to 2021 due fundamentally to the gigantic economic crisis that occurred from 2016 onwards in Brazil and the impact of the new Coronavirus pandemic that contributed to the fall in aggregate demand in the Brazilian economy and not due to the Selic interest rates imposed by the Central Bank.

The ineffectiveness of the Central Bank with its policy of increasing Selic interest rates to combat inflation in Brazil has been proven. The ineffectiveness of the method of increasing Selic interest rates in combating inflation in Brazil, which only benefits rentiers, places on the agenda the need to replace this method with effective direct action by the federal government on the factors that generate inflation with the adoption of concrete measures to eliminate demand inflation, cost inflation, monetary inflation, inertial inflation and the possibility of hyperinflation, when they occur. The Lula government should combat inflation in the demand for goods and services by planning the economy together with the productive sector so that national production meets the internal demand for goods and services. When domestic production is insufficient, the Lula government should commit to importing what the country needs. The Lula government should combat inflation in production costs by monitoring the evolution of the prices of wages, raw materials, inputs and taxes to adopt measures that help to avoid their increase without a corresponding increase in productivity and encourage an increase in productivity in agricultural production , industrial, commerce, services, electrical energy and oil production systems and cargo transportation, and the increase in the government’s own productivity at all levels. It should be noted that increasing productivity means increasing production over time, with the least use of resources, at the lowest possible cost and the elimination of unnecessary expenses and waste. This can be achieved through the use of more modern production systems and the rationalization of the working methods used. To avoid monetary inflation, the government has to avoid uncontrolled issuance of currency. To avoid inertial inflation, it is necessary to avoid price indexation. To avoid hyperinflation, it is necessary to avoid inertial inflation. Unfortunately, none of these measures to combat inflation can be adopted by the Lula government with the existence of the independent Central Bank.

In addition to the first obstacle, of an economic nature with the obstacles represented by the spending ceiling policy, despite the flexibility provided by the Lula government’s fiscal framework and the existence of an independent Central Bank, which make the Brazilian government unable to coordinate its fiscal and monetary policies and making public investments in the expansion of the economy, the second major obstacle occurs, of a political nature, represented by the fact that the Lula government does not have a majority in the National Congress, which prevents the federal government from obtaining approval for its priority projects. In addition to being composed mostly of conservative politicians, opportunists mostly uncommitted to the interests of the vast majority of the Brazilian population, the National Congress also has among its members extreme right-wing parties and politicians who seek to disable the Brazilian government from implementing a national developmentalist project. The current political and economic situation in Brazil demonstrates that it is not enough to elect a President of the Republic committed to the country’s progress. It is also necessary to renew the National Congress by electing progressive representatives of the people to prevent the obstacles that impede Brazil’s development from continuing.

In addition to the first challenge, of an economic nature with the obstacles represented by the spending ceiling policy, despite the flexibility provided by the fiscal framework and the existence of an independent Central Bank, which make the Brazilian government unable to coordinate its fiscal and monetary policies, carry out public investments in expanding the economy and achieving macroeconomic stability, the Lula government faces the second major challenge, of a political nature, represented by the fact of not having a majority in the National Congress, which prevents the federal government from putting into practice its national developmental project and meeting social demands in fullness. In addition to being composed mostly of conservative, opportunist politicians, largely uncommitted to the interests of the immense majority of the Brazilian population, the National Congress also has among its members extreme right-wing parties and politicians who seek to disable the Brazilian government to implement a national developmentalist project and avoid implementing projects of a social nature. The current political situation in Brazil demonstrates that it is not enough to elect a president of the Republic committed to the country’s progress. In addition to electing a progressive president, it is also necessary to renew the National Congress by electing the majority of representatives of the people committed to political advances, economic and social to overcome the obstacles that impede Brazil’s development.

For progressive forces in Brazil to re-elect President Lula in the 2026 presidential elections and obtain a parliamentary majority in the National Congress committed to political, economic and social advances, the Lula government will have to be successful on the economic front, promoting the expansion of the economy, significantly increasing job creation and income, keeping inflation under control and meeting the maximum social demands that benefit, above all, the country’s underserved populations. Furthermore, progressive forces need to commit, starting from the 2024 municipal elections, to elect the maximum of mayors and councilors committed to Brazil’s political, economic and social advances. These are the conditions to prevent, in 2026, right-wing extremists from regaining the Presidency of the Republic, expanding their participation in state governments and the National Congress and putting their nefarious anti-social and anti-national project into practice.  

* Fernando Alcoforado, awarded the medal of Engineering Merit of the CONFEA / CREA System, member of the SBPC- Brazilian Society for the Progress of Science, of IPB- Polytechnic Institute of Bahia and of the Bahia Academy of Education, engineer from the UFBA Polytechnic School and doctor in Territorial Planning and Regional Development from the University of Barcelona, college professor (Engineering, Economy and Administration) and consultant in the areas of strategic planning, business planning, regional planning, urban planning and energy systems, was Advisor to the Vice President of Engineering and Technology at LIGHT S.A. Electric power distribution company from Rio de Janeiro, Strategic Planning Coordinator of CEPED- Bahia Research and Development Center, Undersecretary of Energy of the State of Bahia, Secretary of Planning of Salvador, is the author of the books Globalização (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC- O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem Mundial (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2000), Os condicionantes do desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de doutorado. Universidade de Barcelona,http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globalização e Desenvolvimento (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século XX e Objetivos Estratégicos na Era Contemporânea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The Necessary Conditions of the Economic and Social Development- The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2010), Amazônia Sustentável- Para o progresso do Brasil e combate ao aquecimento global (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2011), Os Fatores Condicionantes do Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2012), Energia no Mundo e no Brasil- Energia e Mudança Climática Catastrófica no Século XXI (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2015), As Grandes Revoluções Científicas, Econômicas e Sociais que Mudaram o Mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2016), A Invenção de um novo Brasil (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2017),  Esquerda x Direita e a sua convergência (Associação Baiana de Imprensa, Salvador, 2018), Como inventar o futuro para mudar o mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2019), A humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência (Editora Dialética, São Paulo, 2021), A escalada da ciência e da tecnologia e sua contribuição ao progresso e à sobrevivência da humanidade (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2022), a chapter in the book Flood Handbook (CRC Press,  Boca Raton, Florida United States, 2022), How to protect human beings from threats to their existence and avoid the extinction of humanity (Generis Publishing, Europe, Republic of Moldova, Chișinău, 2023) and A revolução da educação necessária ao Brasil na era contemporânea (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2023). 

OS ENTRAVES QUE IMPEDEM O DESENVOLVIMENTO DO BRASIL NA ERA CONTEMPORÂNEA E SUAS CONSEQUÊNCIAS POLÍTICAS  

Fernando Alcoforado*

Este artigo tem por objetivo demonstrar que o governo Lula se defronta comdois grandes desafios no seu esforço de promover o desenvolvimento econômico e social do Brasil que precisam ser superados para impedir que os extremistas de direita reconquistem a Presidência da República, ampliem sua participação nos governos estaduais e no Congresso Nacional e coloquem em prática seu nefasto projeto antissocial e antinacional. O primeiro desafio, de natureza econômica, é representado pelos entraves que incapacitam o governo brasileiro de realizar investimentos públicos na expansão da economia e coordenar suas políticas monetárias e fiscais e, o segundo desafio, de natureza política, é representado pelos entraves existentes no Congresso Nacional impostos por políticos e partidos retrógrados que incapacitam o governo brasileiro de implementar um projeto nacional desenvolvimentista. Os avanços políticos, econômicos e sociais do Brasil do presente e do futuro só serão alcançados se o governo Lula for bem sucedido na superação desses entraves.

A incapacitação do Estado no Brasil de realizar investimentos públicos na expansão da economia é parte da estratégia do capitalismo neoliberal globalizado de transformá-lo em Estado mínimo desde 1990. Estado mínimo é o nome dado à ideia do capitalismo neoliberal de que o papel do estado dentro da sociedade deve ser o menor possível exercendo apenas as atividades consideradas “essenciais” e de primeira ordem. A doutrina neoliberal prega a menor participação possível do Estado na economia, dando preferência ao setor privado. Com isso, os efeitos diretos e indiretos esperados de diminuir o tamanho do Estado seriam a redução da tributação, a liberalização do mercado, a privatização de atividades econômicas, a desburocratização e um ambiente mais favorável aos negócios.

A estratégia do neoliberalismo para transformar o Estado brasileiro em Estado mínimo começou em 1990 no governo Fernando Collor que, entre outros males econômicos que produziu, culminou com a adoção da política do teto de gastos públicos durante o governo Michel Temer cujo objetivo central era o de impedir o descontrole das contas públicas e a adoção da autonomia do Banco Central durante o governo Jair Bolsonaro com o objetivo de controlar a inflação. Com a política do teto de gastos públicos, o Estado brasileiro ficou limitado em sua capacidade de promover investimento público com a asfixia financeira em que ficou submetido e inviabilizou a capacidade do Estado brasileiro de adotar políticas econômicas, fiscal e monetária, articuladas entre si com a autonomia do Banco Central. Além de enfrentar restrições em sua capacidade de investimento, o Estado brasileiro perdeu, também, a capacidade de atuar na busca da estabilidade econômica do Brasil haja vista que é com o aumento do gasto ou investimento público que o governo federal poderá compensar a queda eventual no consumo das famílias (C), do investimento privado (I) e das exportações (X) e o aumento das importações (M) para manter o crescimento do PIB = C+I+ G+X-M ou, com a redução no gasto público, compensar o aumento eventual do consumo das famílias (C), do investimento privado (I) e das exportações (X) e a queda das importações (M).

Se fosse mantida a política do teto de gastos públicos para a União, a principal tendência seria a de que, dentro de alguns anos, os gastos do governo federal teriam uma participação cada vez menor na formação do PIB do Brasil comprometendo o desenvolvimento econômico e social do País, haja vista que o governo federal estaria impedido de aumentar o gasto público para promover o crescimento econômico do Brasil ou combater a recessão com a adoção de medidas compensatórias do ponto de vista macroeconômico. Esta é a razão pela qual a inserção da política do teto de gastos na Constituição federal se constituiu em um crime contra o desenvolvimento do Brasil, isto é, um crime de lesa pátria. A política do teto de gastos públicos inserida na Constituição do Brasil com base na PEC 55/2016 durante o governo Michel Temer foi um crime praticado contra o desenvolvimento do Brasil porque procurou limitar os gastos públicos pelos próximos 20 anos, a partir de 2017, que só seriam reajustados com base na inflação oficial do ano anterior com possibilidade de revisão a partir do décimo ano de vigência. Isto significa dizer que o governo federal ficaria impedido de elaborar o orçamento da União com um valor maior do que o do ano anterior podendo apenas corrigir seus valores de acordo com a inflação.

Com a política do teto de gastos, alguns gastos públicos poderiam crescer mais do que a inflação, desde que fossem compensados com cortes reais em outras áreas. Isso implicava que, na prática os gastos públicos não poderiam crescer durante sua vigência de 20 anos, isto é, os gastos públicos seriam congelados durante 20 anos, comprometendo os investimentos públicos em infraestrutura de energia, transportes, comunicações, educação, saúde, saneamento básico e habitação popular necessários ao desenvolvimento econômico e social do Brasil. Isto significa dizer que se fosse mantida a política do teto de gastos públicos, o governo Lula estaria inviabilizado. Na tentativa de amenizar o ônus da herança maldita da política do teto de gastos adotados durante os governos Temer e Bolsonaro, o governo Lula instituiu o denominado arcabouço fiscal que tem sido chamado, também, de “novo teto de gastos” agora condicionado ao aumento da arrecadação pública. Com o arcabouço fiscal, o governo Lula poderá aumentar o gasto público desde que haja aumento da arrecadação este ano e nos anos futuros para equilibraras contas do governo. Trata-se de um imenso desafio já que o aumento da arrecadação pública depende da expansão da economia que, por sua vez, depende do aumento dos investimentos públicos e privados. Em outras palavras, se houver queda de arrecadação pública, o governo Lula não terá capacidade de realizar os investimentos públicos necessários ao desenvolvimento do Brasil.

Além da absurda PEC 55/2016 durante o governo Michel Temer que instituiu o teto de gastos públicos, foi aprovada pelo Congresso Nacional durante o governo Jair Bolsonaro a Lei Complementar 179/2021 que estabeleceu a autonomia do Banco Central, cujo presidente e diretores têm mandatos fixos de quatro anos, não coincidentes com o do Presidente da República, ambas as medidas voltadas para incapacitar o Estado brasileiro na adoção e execução de políticas fiscais e monetárias. Com a autonomia do Banco Central, o Congresso Nacional impossibilitou o governo federal de adotar políticas econômicas fiscais e monetárias articuladas entre si como ocorre no momento atual na medida em que a política monetária recessiva imposta pelo Banco Central com taxas de juros extremamente elevadas, as maiores do mundo, inviabiliza o esforço do governo Lula de promover a retomada do desenvolvimento nacional. Além disso, constata-se um fato evidente que é o de que a adoção pelo Banco Central das taxas de juros como método de controle da inflação não tem funcionado no Brasil.  As taxas de juros Selic adotadas pelo Banco Central, extremamente elevadas, não contribuíram para manter a inflação abaixo das metas de inflação estabelecidas de 2008 a 2015 e, também, em 2021. As taxas de inflação só estiveram abaixo das metas de inflação de 2017 a 2021 devido fundamentalmente à gigantesca crise econômica que ocorreu a partir de 2016 no Brasil e ao impacto da pandemia do novo Coronavirus que contribuíram para a queda da demanda agregada da economia brasileira e não devido às taxas de juros Selic impostas pelo Banco Central.  

Está provada a ineficácia do Banco Central com sua política de elevação das taxas de juros Selic para combater a inflação no Brasil.  A ineficácia do método da elevação das taxas de juros Selic no combate à inflação no Brasil, que só beneficia os rentistas, coloca na ordem do dia a necessidade da substituição deste método pela ação direta efetiva do governo federal sobre os fatores geradores da inflação com a adoção de medidas concretas para eliminar a inflação de demanda, a inflação de custos, a inflação monetária, a inflação inercial e a possibilidade de hiperinflação, quando elas ocorrerem. O governo Lula deveria combater a inflação de demanda de bens e serviços planejando a economia em conjunto com o setor produtivo para que a produção nacional atenda a demanda interna de bens e serviços. Quando a produção interna for insuficiente, o governo Lula deveria se empenhar para importar o que o País necessita. O governo Lula deveria combater a inflação de custos de produção acompanhando a evolução dos preços dos salários, matérias-primas, insumos e impostos para adotar medidas que contribuam para evitar seu aumento sem o correspondente aumento da produtividade e incentivar o aumento da produtividade na produção agrícola, industrial, do comércio, dos serviços, nos sistemas de energia elétrica e de produção de petróleo e no transporte de carga, e o aumento da produtividade do próprio governo em todos os níveis. Ressalte-se que aumentar produtividade significa o aumento de produção no tempo, com o menor uso de recursos, com o menor custo possível e a eliminação de gastos desnecessários e de desperdícios. Isto pode ser alcançado com a utilização de sistemas mais modernos de produção e a racionalização dos métodos de trabalho utilizados. Para evitar a inflação monetária, o governo tem que evitar a emissão descontrolada da moeda. Para evitar a inflação inercial, é preciso evitar a indexação de preços. Para evitar a hiperinflação, é preciso evitar a inflação inercial. Lamentavelmente, nenhuma dessas medidas de combate à inflação poderá ser adotada pelo governo Lula com a existência do Banco Central independente.

Além do primeiro desafio, de natureza econômica com os entraves representados pela política do teto de gastos mesmo com a flexibilidade proporcionada pelo arcabouço fiscal e a existência de um Banco Central independente que incapacitam o governo brasileiro de coordenar suas políticas fiscais e monetárias, realizar investimentos públicos na expansão da economia e obter estabilidade macroeconômica, o governo Lula enfrenta o segundo grande desafio, de natureza política, representado pelo fato de não ter maioria no Congresso Nacional que impede o governo federal de colocar em prática seu projeto nacional desenvolvimentista e atender as demandas sociais na plenitude. Além de ser composto em sua maioria por políticos conservadores, oportunistas, descomprometidos em sua grande maioria com os interesses da imensa maioria da população brasileira, o Congresso Nacional tem, também, entre seus integrantes partidos e políticos de extrema direita que buscam incapacitar o governo brasileiro de implementar um projeto nacional desenvolvimentista e evitar a implementação de projetos de natureza social. A atual conjuntura política do Brasil demonstra que não basta eleger um presidente da República comprometido com o progresso do País. Além de eleger um presidente progressista, é preciso renovar, também, o Congresso Nacional elegendo a maioria de representantes do povo comprometidos com os avanços políticos, econômicos e sociais para superar os entraves que impedem o desenvolvimento do Brasil.

Para as forças progressistas do Brasil reelegerem o Presidente Lula nas eleições presidenciais de 2026 e obterem maioria parlamentar no Congresso Nacional comprometida com os avanços políticos, econômicos e sociais, o governo Lula terá que ser bem sucedido no plano econômico promovendo a expansão da economia, aumentando significativamente a geração de emprego e renda, mantendo a inflação sob controle e atendendo o máximo das demandas sociais que beneficiem, sobretudo, as populações desassistidas do País. Além disso, as forças progressistas precisam se empenhar, a partir das eleições municipais de 2024, no sentido de elegerem o máximo de prefeitos e vereadores comprometidos com os avanços políticos, econômicos e sociais do Brasil. Estas são as condições para evitar que, em 2026, os extremistas de direita reconquistem a Presidência da República, ampliem sua participação nos governos estaduais e no Congresso Nacional e coloquem em prática seu nefasto projeto antissocial e antinacional.    

* Fernando Alcoforado, 84, condecorado com a Medalha do Mérito da Engenharia do Sistema CONFEA/CREA, membro da SBPC- Sociedade Brasileira para o Progresso da Ciência, do IPB- Instituto Politécnico da Bahia e da Academia Baiana de Educação, engenheiro pela Escola Politécnica da UFBA e doutor em Planejamento Territorial e Desenvolvimento Regional pela Universidade de Barcelona, professor universitário (Engenharia, Economia e Administração) e consultor nas áreas de planejamento estratégico, planejamento empresarial, planejamento regional e planejamento de sistemas energéticos, foi Assessor do Vice-Presidente de Engenharia e Tecnologia da LIGHT S.A. Electric power distribution company do Rio de Janeiro, Coordenador de Planejamento Estratégico do CEPED- Centro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento da Bahia, Subsecretário de Energia do Estado da Bahia, Secretário do Planejamento de Salvador, é autor dos livros Globalização (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC- O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem Mundial (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2000), Os condicionantes do desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de doutorado. Universidade de Barcelona,http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globalização e Desenvolvimento (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século XX e Objetivos Estratégicos na Era Contemporânea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The Necessary Conditions of the Economic and Social Development- The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2010), Amazônia Sustentável- Para o progresso do Brasil e combate ao aquecimento global (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2011), Os Fatores Condicionantes do Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2012), Energia no Mundo e no Brasil- Energia e Mudança Climática Catastrófica no Século XXI (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2015), As Grandes Revoluções Científicas, Econômicas e Sociais que Mudaram o Mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2016), A Invenção de um novo Brasil (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2017),  Esquerda x Direita e a sua convergência (Associação Baiana de Imprensa, Salvador, 2018, em co-autoria), Como inventar o futuro para mudar o mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2019), A humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência (Editora Dialética, São Paulo, 2021), A escalada da ciência e da tecnologia ao longo da história e sua contribuição ao progresso e à sobrevivência da humanidade (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2022), de capítulo do livro Flood Handbook (CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, United States, 2022), How to protect human beings from threats to their existence and avoid the extinction of humanity (Generis Publishing, Europe, Republic of Moldova, Chișinău, 2023) e A revolução da educação necessária ao Brasil na era contemporânea (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2023).

L’ÉVOLUTION DE L’ÉDUCATION AU BRÉSIL À TRAVERS L’HISTOIRE ET LES EXIGENCES DE SON DÉVELOPPEMENT FUTUR

Fernando Alcoforado*

Cet article vise à présenter l’évolution de l’éducation au Brésil à travers l’histoire et les exigences de son développement futur. Pour atteindre cet objectif, les articles “As origens da educação no Brasil da hegemonia católica às primeiras tentativas de organização do ensino” (Les origines de l’éducation au Brésil depuis l’hégémonie catholique jusqu’aux premières tentatives d’organisation de l’enseignement) [1] et “História da Educação Brasileira: da colônia ao século XX” (Histoire de l’éducation brésilienne : de la colonie au XXe siècle) {2] ont été analysés, comme ainsi que le livre “A revolução da educação necessária ao Brasil na era contemporânea” (La révolution éducative nécessaire pour le Brésil à l’époque contemporaine) [3].

L’analyse de l’article “As origens da educação no Brasil da hegemonia católica às primeiras tentativas de organização do ensino” (Les origines de l’éducation au Brésil depuis l’hégémonie catholique jusqu’aux premières tentatives d’organisation de l’enseignement) de Marcos Marques de Oliveira nous a permis d’arriver aux conclusions exposées dans les paragraphes suivants [1].

L’histoire de l’éducation au Brésil commence avec le projet de colonisation qui comptait sur la contribution décisive de l’Église catholique à travers la Compagnie de Jésus, c’est-à-dire les Jésuites. La proposition pédagogique des Jésuites a joué un rôle fondamental en permettant au projet de colonisation portugaise de se dérouler de 1500 jusqu’à l’indépendance du Brésil en 1822. L’enseignement était l’un des principaux instruments de la domination coloniale du Portugal, dont la fonction était délimitée par le système disciplinaire éducatif, basé sur un structure pédagogique rigide imposée par les Jésuites. Les Jésuites ont été à l’avant-garde du projet éducatif dès le début de l’action du Portugal au Brésil, qui a commencé au XVIe siècle.

Dans la période coloniale, il est possible de voir la différence entre le projet de colonisation portugais et espagnol. Alors que l’Espagne ouvrait des universités dans ses colonies, le Portugal a mis trois siècles pour ouvrir une université au Brésil, ce qui n’a eu lieu qu’avec l’arrivée de la famille royale portugaise au Brésil en 1808. De 1500 jusqu’au XIXe siècle, l’éducation brésilienne s’est concentrée exclusivement sur la formation des les couches supérieures, dans le but de les préparer aux activités politico-bureaucratiques et aux professions libérales, presque toujours en charge ou sous l’influence de l’initiative religieuse privée.

Après l’indépendance du Brésil vis-à-vis du Portugal, pendant la période impériale du Brésil, le pouvoir central dirigé de 1826 à 1889 par D. Pedro II était en charge de l’enseignement supérieur dans tout le pays et les autres niveaux étaient en charge des provinces, à l’exception de Colégio Pedro II, nommé en l’honneur de notre deuxième souverain impérial, qui devrait servir de modèle aux écoles provinciales. Le manque de ressources et le manque d’intérêt des élites régionales ont empêché l’organisation d’un réseau scolaire efficace. En fin de compte, l’enseignement secondaire a été généralement pris en charge par des initiatives privées, notamment par l’Église catholique. L’enseignement primaire, une fois de plus, est abandonné. A la fin de l’Empire, le cadre de l’enseignement général était assez précaire avec peu d’écoles primaires (avec 250 000 élèves pour un pays d’environ 14 millions d’habitants, dont 85 % d’illettrés).

La relation ombilicale entre l’Église catholique et la puissance coloniale portugaise s’est maintenue au Brésil même après son indépendance en 1822 pendant la période impériale et a pris fin avec la Proclamation de la République avec le divorce officiel entre l’Église et l’État. Le catholicisme, qui détenait jusqu’alors le monopole dans le domaine éducatif, a subi un coup dur avec la sécularisation qui s’est instaurée dans la société brésilienne à travers le mouvement libéral et qui s’est concrétisée sur la scène nationale avec la Proclamation de la République en 1889. Dans la transition entre la période impériale et la République au Brésil, avec l’adhésion d’une partie de l’élite intellectuelle aux idéaux du libéralisme bourgeois, l’éducation se voit confier la tâche héroïque de promouvoir la construction de la société brésilienne sur de nouvelles bases.

La première Constitution de la République, de 1891, a institué le système de gouvernement fédéral et, par conséquent, la décentralisation de l’éducation. L’Union se réserve le droit de créer des établissements d’enseignement supérieur et secondaire dans les États et de dispenser un enseignement secondaire dans le District fédéral. Les États étaient chargés de fournir et de légiférer sur l’enseignement primaire, en plus de l’enseignement professionnel, qui comprenait à l’époque des écoles secondaires normales pour les femmes et des écoles techniques pour les hommes. Au niveau des politiques publiques, il y a eu plusieurs tentatives de réforme éducative de la part du gouvernement central républicain. Toutes ces réformes ont fini par perpétuer le modèle éducatif hérité de la période coloniale. Seule l’exigence d’élargir l’offre d’enseignement d’élite (enseignement secondaire et supérieur) aux classes moyennes émergentes a été satisfaite par l’Union.

Entre-temps, au niveau international, émerge une nouvelle dimension de l’idéologie libérale qui s’exprimera dans la pédagogie pragmatique de la New School, basée sur la pensée du nord-américain John Dewey, qui a proposé un modèle d’école réformiste. La pensée de l’École Nouvelle a été assimilée par plusieurs éducateurs brésiliens, dont le grand éducateur Anísio Teixeira, se consolidant en une idéologie éducative qui influencera le développement de l’enseignement au Brésil. Le premier document exprimant cette idéologie est le Manifeste des pionniers de l’éducation nouvelle, de 1932, qui cherchait à surmonter les tentatives partielles de réforme faites jusqu’alors et à établir une direction unique, claire et définie pour le mouvement de rénovation de l’éducation nationale. À cette fin, sur la base du droit individuel à l’éducation, il a déterminé que l’État, représentant la communauté, assumait la responsabilité d’organiser l’éducation, avec pour tâche de rendre l’école accessible, à tous ses niveaux, aux citoyens maintenus dans des conditions d’infériorité économique. Les auteurs du Manifeste des pionniers de l’éducation nouvelle avaient pour idéal un système éducatif dans lequel l’éducation populaire de masse et la formation spécialisée apparaîtraient comme complémentaires.

Ainsi, à l’exception de l’Église catholique qui s’opposait à l’éducation laïque et au monopole d’État prôné par le Manifeste des pionniers de l’éducation nouvelle, la dictature de l’Estado Novo qui débuta en 1937 incorpora les idées et la rhétorique de l’École nouvelle. Dans le domaine éducatif, l’arrivée au pouvoir de Getúlio Vargas a représenté, aux yeux de l’Église, le renforcement des idéaux de l’Escola Nova, qui, avec la défense de l’éducation laïque et de l’école publique, mettait en danger l’hégémonie de l’Église catholique dans le domaine de l’éducation au Brésil. Mais l’Église catholique allait bientôt trouver sa place. Après 40 ans, l’enseignement religieux était à nouveau autorisé dans les écoles publiques, prouvant ainsi que l’État laïc brésilien était un sophisme. Dans les années 1930 et 1940, les objectifs proposés par les pionniers de l’École Nouvelle n’ont pas été pleinement atteints car la structure traditionnelle dualiste, élitiste et académique de l’éducation brésilienne était préservée.

Le besoin croissant de main-d’œuvre rapide et bon marché imposé par le processus d’industrialisation au Brésil déclenché par le gouvernement de Getúlio Vargas avait imposé de nouvelles exigences en matière de qualifications professionnelles techniques. La solution trouvée par la bourgeoisie industrielle naissante a été la création d’un système d’établissements d’enseignement technique indépendants du ministère de l’Éducation, dont l’objectif exclusif était de répondre aux intérêts des syndicats patronaux pour travailleurs minimalement qualifiés, comme ce fut le cas avec la création du SENAI (1942) et SENAC (1946). Les élites économiques et politiques qui ont dirigé la transition de la société agricole à la société urbaine-industrielle depuis 1930 au Brésil n’ont pas réussi à créer une école publique, laïque et unique pour tous, conçue à travers un projet pédagogique associant enseignement général et formation technologique centré sur le monde du travail.

L’analyse de l’article « Histoire de l’éducation brésilienne : de la colonie au XXe siècle » d’Amarilio Ferreira Jr. nous a permis d’arriver aux conclusions exposées dans les prochaines paragraphes [2].

En 1948, le ministre de l’Éducation, Clemente Mariani, envoya au Congrès national un projet de loi à caractère laïc-libéral. L’Église catholique et les secteurs conservateurs de la société ont réagi contre le projet Mariani et ont commencé à faire pression pour que le projet ne soit pas approuvé par la Chambre des députés. Les défenseurs des écoles publiques et laïques commencent alors à se mobiliser au niveau national et lancent la « Campagne de défense des écoles publiques », qui culmine, en 1958, avec la publication du Manifeste des éducateurs. Le « Manifeste de 1959 », comme on l’a appelé, défendait avec véhémence l’école d’État, publique et laïque comme seul établissement d’enseignement capable de vaincre les maux de l’éducation nationale et de contribuer à produire « le progrès scientifique et technique nécessaire au développement économique » de la société brésilienne.

La première LDB (Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação Brasileira) de l’histoire de l’éducation brésilienne a été approuvée, après 13 ans et de nombreuses controverses idéologiques, en décembre 1961 et est entrée en vigueur l’année suivante. Outre l’institutionnalisation du Conseil fédéral de l’éducation, la fin de la discrimination entre l’enseignement propédeutique, qui cherche à fonder certains savoirs, de manière plus généraliste, et l’enseignement professionnel et l’élaboration périodique du Plan national d’éducation, a gardé intacte la structure des différents degrés et branches de l’éducation nationale existante. La LDB/61 était cependant bien en deçà des exigences éducatives générées par les contradictions modernisatrices de la logique capitaliste imposée à la société brésilienne à partir de 1930, car elle maintenait, pour l’essentiel, la structure pédagogique héritée des « lois organiques » approuvées pendant l’Estado Novo qui ne rompt pas le binôme de l’élitisme et de l’exclusion qui s’est manifesté dans l’éducation brésilienne depuis la période coloniale.

La LDB de 1961 a permis la cohabitation entre écoles publiques et privées. Le système national d’enseignement dual (public et privé) a engendré une nouvelle phase du binôme fondé sur l’élitisme et l’exclusion scolaire. Dès lors, la scolarisation des enfants des élites commença, grosso modo, par une éducation de base dans des écoles privées offrant une excellente qualité d’enseignement, dont les frais mensuels étaient (et sont encore aujourd’hui) très élevés par rapport aux normes de la grande majorité de la population brésilienne et le public scolaire était destiné aux enfants des masses populaires. Les premiers ont accès aux meilleures universités publiques. Ces derniers terminent à peine la scolarité obligatoire (actuellement 9 ans) et sont contraints d’entrer dans le monde du travail avec ou sans formation technique professionnelle. En d’autres termes, les bons vieux cursus de l’enseignement supérieur public en droit, médecine et ingénierie continuent d’être réservés aux enfants des élites économiques et politiques qui ont gouverné le Brésil pendant des siècles.

Cette situation éducative en vigueur au Brésil dans la seconde moitié du XXe siècle a suscité une critique acerbe de la part de Paulo Freire. En 1961, le grand éducateur brésilien déclarait que la société brésilienne n’avait pas encore résolu les deux dimensions fondamentales de tout système éducatif national, à savoir l’expansion quantitative de l’école publique obligatoire pour tous les enfants d’âge scolaire et la qualité des connaissances scolaires offertes aux enfants. Pire encore, selon Paulo Freire, dans le cadre des quelques écoles existantes prévalait une conception de l’enseignement-apprentissage basée sur des contenus pédagogiques complètement dissociés de la réalité socio-économique concrète vécue par la société brésilienne de l’époque. Paulo Freire a développé sa « pédagogie des opprimés ». Pour lui, le passage d’une « société fermée » (agraire) à une « société ouverte » (urbaine-industrielle) exigeait nécessairement l’éradication de l’analphabétisme, car la condition d’existence des analphabètes impliquait la manifestation d’une conscience naïve par rapport à au monde environnant et reproduit donc le vieux « statu quo » social agraire.

Pour Paulo Freire, il fallait donc libérer l’homme qui vivait enfermé dans la « société fermée » grâce à l’accès aux connaissances historiquement accumulées par l’humanité. La conscience critique transitive, atteinte par la connaissance, permettrait de rendre viable la « société ouverte », c’est-à-dire une société démocratique. Ainsi, conscience critique et société démocratique constitueraient les deux conditions fondamentales pour que l’homme soit un sujet actif de sa propre histoire. En résumé : la combinaison de la liberté, rendue possible par la « société ouverte », avec une action historique consciente humaniserait l’homme lui-même. Mais le passage de la conscience naïve à la conscience critique, selon Paulo Freire, ne se ferait pas naturellement, mais plutôt à travers les travaux menés dans le domaine de l’éducation. En ce sens, on comprend le caractère politique de sa méthode d’alphabétisation, comme on peut le lire dans l’ouvrage « L’éducation comme pratique de liberté ».

La méthode d’alphabétisation créée par Paulo Freire était basée sur ce que l’on appelle les « cercles de culture populaire ». Ces cercles réunissaient, par exemple, des adultes d’une communauté rurale spécifique et menaient un large débat sur leurs conditions de vie et de travail et sur les éléments culturels qui se manifestaient dans la vie quotidienne de cette population. Ainsi, à partir des histoires racontées par les habitants de la communauté, l’éducateur a recueilli au fil des discussions les mots les plus significatifs et représentatifs de la culture locale, et c’est ce vocabulaire populaire qui a servi de référence pour l’acquisition du langage écrit par les élèves d’alphabétisation. Ainsi, les « mots générateurs », couramment utilisés dans la langue utilisée dans la vie quotidienne des gens, étaient chargés d’expériences culturelles vécues par les sujets du processus d’apprentissage de la langue parlée.

La méthode d’alphabétisation de Paulo Freire a effrayé les segments réactionnaires de la société brésilienne. Contrairement à la conception dominante de la société défendue par les élites qui prônaient la « domestication » du peuple par l’éducation, la « pédagogie des opprimés » proposée par Paulo Freire défendait l’éducation du peuple comme véritable pratique de la liberté. On peut dire que la méthode d’alphabétisation de Paulo Freire, véritablement née des conditions historiques brésiliennes, avortée par le coup d’État de 1964, peut être classée comme l’initiative éducative la plus radicale du XXe siècle. Même si Paulo Freire est reconnu dans le monde entier comme un grand défenseur de l’éducation, il est l’éducateur le plus combattu par les élites réactionnaires du Brésil.

Le coup d’État de 1964 représente le changement institutionnel le plus grave de l’histoire du Brésil survenu dans la seconde moitié du XXe siècle. Elle change radicalement le cours du processus politique de redémocratisation que connaît le Brésil depuis 1945. La dictature militaire, avec les deux réformes (1968 et 1971), subordonne la politique éducative à la logique économique de modernisation accélérée de la société brésilienne, imposant le discours selon lequel le seul rôle que devait jouer l’éducation était de maximiser la productivité du produit intérieur brut (PIB), indépendamment de la répartition du revenu national. Ainsi, dans la même mesure où les putschistes de 1964 supprimaient les libertés politiques, les technocrates du gouvernement propageaient l’idéologie techniciste comme un système d’idées dogmatiquement organisé qui servait à légitimer l’unité organique entre l’économie et l’éducation.

La politique éducative du régime militaire, basée sur l’idéologie techniciste, a également abouti à des échecs, car l’éducation conçue comme un mécanisme de changement dans la formation du travail et intégrée dans le système productif, maintenait en réalité des taux élevés d’analphabétisme et des professionnels marginalisés, sans emploi. L’université publique brésilienne, quant à elle, souffrait de quatre problèmes majeurs : a) un retard dans les programmes et dans les qualifications du personnel enseignant, qui étaient déterminées par le rôle du professeur (poste occupé par le professeur titulaire) ; b) la précarité des infrastructures des laboratoires de recherche et d’enseignement ; c) existence d’une structure académique qui confère au système universitaire un caractère autoritaire ; d) l’élitisme, tel qu’il était destiné à quelques-uns.

Les résultats des élections directes des gouverneurs des États en 1982 ont donné naissance à des projets éducatifs alternatifs à l’enseignement technique imposé par la dictature militaire, comme ce qui s’est passé à Rio de Janeiro sous le gouvernement de Leonel Brizola, qui a mis en œuvre les soi-disant CIEP ( Centres intégrés d’éducation publique) qui étaient des écoles à temps plein. Là, les étudiants restaient de 8 heures à 17 heures, dont sept heures étaient consacrées aux cours et les autres étaient réparties entre les repas, le sport, les études guidées et les soins médicaux. Certains points de cette liste d’initiatives visant à démocratiser l’école publique brésilienne ont été critiqués par les secteurs conservateurs, notamment la presse réactionnaire, ce qui a entraîné un revers avec la fin des soi-disant CIEP.

Les projets éducatifs mis en œuvre par les oppositions dans la première moitié des années 1980, alors que la dictature militaire touchait à sa fin, résultaient essentiellement de la combinaison de deux courants pédagogiques. Le courant hégémonique a été influencé notamment par les pensées de Paulo Freire et de Jean Piaget, et le résultat a été une pédagogie combinant le « constructivisme génétique » avec une éducation centrée sur l’activisme étudiant. Bref : c’était une sorte de « nouvelle école » pédagogiquement revigorée. L’autre était représenté par les différents concepts éducatifs dérivés du marxisme, principalement ceux formulés par le penseur italien Antonio Gramsci, qui a formulé un modèle pédagogique valorisant l’activité humaine qui interprète et transforme la réalité. Mais ces expériences éducatives adoptées de manière autonome et conformément aux corrélations de forces qui s’établissaient entre les tendances pédagogiques existantes étaient destinées à être de courte durée, comme cela s’est effectivement produit.

Avec la fin de la dictature militaire au Brésil, la dernière décennie du XXe siècle a été marquée par l’adoption du modèle économique néolibéral par les gouvernements de Fernando Collor de Mello (1990-1992), Itamar Franco (1992-1994) et Fernando Henrique Cardoso (1995-2002) dont les lignes directrices ont été établies par le Consensus de Washington. Cela signifiait la réforme de l’État brésilien, la privatisation des entreprises publiques et l’ajustement fiscal qui ont porté préjudice aux politiques publiques, en particulier en matière d’éducation, car ils ont permis la croissance du secteur privé, principalement dans le contexte de l’enseignement supérieur, alors que le secteur public l’enseignement scolaire est resté encore plus inefficace, une situation qui perdure aujourd’hui.

Liés à la thèse de la mondialisation, les « paquets éducatifs », émanant du centre vers la périphérie du système capitaliste, ont enlevé au Brésil l’autonomie dont disposait le Brésil pour structurer ses propres politiques éducatives. Le Brésil est arrivé à la fin du XXe siècle sans résoudre le problème majeur de l’école publique : la qualité de l’enseignement qu’elle offre aux classes populaires. En 2000, par exemple, plus de 30 millions d’élèves fréquentaient l’enseignement primaire public. Sur ce contingent d’enfants inscrits dans l’enseignement public obligatoire pendant huit ans, trois millions étaient échoué  et 27 millions ont été soumis à un processus éducatif dégradant du point de vue du capital culturel classique historiquement accumulé par l’humanité, comme les résultats scolaires dans des matières telles que comme le portugais et les mathématiques l’indiquent ce que certains chercheurs appellent une « formation intellectuelle indigent », couronnant un siècle de réformes infructueuses et de politiques éducatives inefficaces. Ainsi, l’enseignement public brésilien a généré une situation de ségrégation culturelle et civile pour la majorité absolue des enfants brésiliens âgés de 7 à 14 ans. Mais désormais, l’exclusion des classes populaires n’est plus due à l’absence d’école, puisque la question de l’accès est résolue ; cela se manifeste par le fait de rester à l’école elle-même, c’est-à-dire que l’école publique ne garantit pas l’apprentissage effectif des connaissances essentielles requises par la société brésilienne.

De ce qui précède, on peut conclure que le Brésil est arrivé à la fin du XXe siècle, après la fin de la dictature militaire (1985) et la promulgation de la Constitution de 1988, sans avoir réussi à résoudre la question des écoles publiques pour tous et avec bonne qualité d’enseignement. L’école publique brésilienne est arrivée à la fin du XXe siècle sans pouvoir remplir le rôle éducatif que les sociétés républicaines développées lui ont confié à partir du XIXe siècle, c’est-à-dire constituer une institution éducative dont la fonction principale est de générer et de transmettre les connaissances fondamentales. qui permettent aux citoyens de faire face aux défis culturels, scientifiques et technologiques créés par le monde contemporain. Il reste donc une tâche majeure à accomplir pour la société brésilienne contemporaine : la consolidation effective d’écoles publiques, laïques et de qualité pour tous.

L’analyse du livre « La révolution éducative nécessaire au Brésil à l’époque contemporaine » écrit par Fernando Alcoforado nous a permis de voir quelles sont les exigences pour l’éducation au Brésil dans le futur, qui sont résumées dans les paragraphes suivants [3].

À l’époque contemporaine, il est urgent de promouvoir une révolution dans le système éducatif brésilien, devenue nécessaire parce que l’éducation brésilienne présente de grandes faiblesses dans l’enseignement primaire, secondaire et supérieur. Le plan national d’éducation du gouvernement de Dilma Rousseff est devenu une simple lettre d’intention. avec 90% des objectifs non atteints et la réforme de l’enseignement secondaire du gouvernement Michel Temer présente de nombreux revers. On peut dire que la mauvaise performance du système éducatif brésilien résulte, entre autres facteurs, principalement d’un investissement insuffisant dans l’éducation brésilienne par rapport aux investissements dans l’éducation des meilleurs systèmes éducatifs du monde. Les dépenses d’éducation par étudiant au Brésil (3 000 $ US/étudiant) sont ridiculement faibles par rapport à des pays comme les États-Unis, la Suisse, le Danemark, la Suède, entre autres, qui investissent massivement dans l’éducation jusqu’à environ 15 000 $ US/étudiant. Si le Brésil voulait égaler les pays développés en termes de dépenses par étudiant, il devrait plus que quintupler ses dépenses par étudiant dans le secteur éducatif. Le Brésil investit 0,76% de son PIB dans l’éducation tandis que la Finlande, dont le système éducatif est reconnu mondialement pour être le plus efficace et le plus qualifié du préscolaire à l’enseignement supérieur, investit environ 7,1% de son PIB dans un système éducatif de très haute qualité. Le Brésil devrait pratiquement multiplier par 9 ses dépenses d’éducation pour rivaliser avec la Finlande.

Les dépenses d’éducation au Brésil sont en baisse depuis 2014, le budget du ministère de l’Éducation pour l’éducation de base a diminué de 2012 à 2020. Le gouvernement fédéral est une entité fédérée qui participe peu aux investissements dans l’éducation au Brésil. Selon l’INEP (Institut national d’éducation et de recherche), en 2012, pour chaque 1 R$ investi dans l’éducation, les municipalités ont investi R$ 0,42, les États ont dépensé R$ 0,40 et l’Union n’a investi que R$ 0,18. Il est nécessaire d’accroître la participation du gouvernement fédéral aux investissements dans l’éducation à tous les niveaux. Pour que le gouvernement brésilien puisse investir dans l’éducation, il doit réduire le fardeau du paiement des intérêts et de l’amortissement de la dette publique, qui a engagé 50,8 % du budget de l’Union 2021, alors que seulement 2,49 % ont été alloués à l’éducation. Pour réduire la charge du gouvernement fédéral en matière de paiement des intérêts et d’amortissement de la dette publique, il est nécessaire de réduire la dette publique, qui a atteint 79,8 % du PIB en 2019.

Pour réduire la dette publique, le gouvernement fédéral doit réduire le déficit public en favorisant : 1) la réduction des dépenses superflues et des organismes publics inutiles ; 2) augmenter la collecte des impôts en taxant les super-riches ; 3) promouvoir la croissance du PIB, le gouvernement fédéral jouant un rôle proactif en investissant, notamment dans les infrastructures, y compris l’éducation ; 4) encourager les exportations ; et 5) la renégociation avec ses créanciers de la dette publique avec l’extension du paiement des intérêts afin que l’État brésilien dispose de ressources pour investir dans divers secteurs, y compris l’éducation.

Une fois que le problème de l’insuffisance des ressources du gouvernement fédéral aura été résolu en abordant et en résolvant le problème de la dette publique, la révolution de l’éducation au Brésil pourra être déclenchée avec la planification d’un système éducatif visant à surmonter les problèmes actuels et à répondre aux besoins de l’avenir visant à augmenter le nombre d’unités éducatives de qualité et à disposer de bons gestionnaires, enseignants et infrastructures. Pour que cela se produise, il est nécessaire d’augmenter la participation du secteur public dans l’enseignement supérieur du pays et de restreindre la participation du secteur privé car il présente une éducation de faible qualité, des taux d’abandon élevés et ratio élèves/enseignant élevé, entre autres problèmes. Pour surmonter les faiblesses existantes de l’enseignement primaire, secondaire et supérieur au Brésil, il est nécessaire d’augmenter les investissements publics dans l’éducation pour provoquer une révolution dans l’éducation brésilienne qui comprend l’adoption de politiques similaires à celles adoptées par les pays qui ont les meilleurs systèmes éducatifs dans le monde comme la Finlande, la France, la Chine, les États-Unis, Cuba, la Corée du Sud et le Japon.

LES RÉFÉRENCES

  1. OLIVEIRA, Marcos Marques. As origens da educação no Brasil da hegemonia católica às primeiras tentativas de organização do ensino. Disponible sur le site Web <https://www.scielo.br/j/ensaio/a/Ms7rqgdwYhBLP7q5ZTYjLhb/>.
  2. FERREIRA JR, Amarilio . História da Educação Brasileira: da colônia ao século XX. Disponible sur le site Web <https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/5618173/mod_resource/content/1/Ferreira%20Jr.%2C%20AmarilioHist%C3%B3ria%20da%20Educa%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20Brasileira_%20UAB-UFSCAR.pdf>.
  3. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. A revolução da educação necessária ao Brasil na era contemporânea. Curitiba: Editora CRV, 2023.

​* Fernando Alcoforado, 84, a reçoit la Médaille du Mérite en Ingénierie du Système CONFEA / CREA, membre de l’Académie de l’Education de Bahia, de la SBPC – Société Brésilienne pour le Progrès des Sciences et l’IPB – Institut Polytechnique de Bahia, ingénieur de l’École Polytechnique UFBA et docteur en Planification du Territoire et Développement Régional de l’Université de Barcelone, professeur d’Université (Ingénierie, Économie et Administration) et consultant dans les domaines de la planification stratégique, de la planification d’entreprise, planification du territoire et urbanisme, systèmes énergétiques, a été Conseiller du Vice-Président Ingénierie et Technologie chez LIGHT S.A. Entreprise de distribution d’énergie électrique de Rio de Janeiro, coordinatrice de la planification stratégique du CEPED – Centre de recherche et de développement de Bahia, sous-secrétaire à l’énergie de l’État de Bahia, secrétaire à la  planification de Salvador, il est l’auteur de ouvrages Globalização (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC- O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem Mundial (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2000), Os condicionantes do desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de doutorado. Universidade de Barcelona,http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globalização e Desenvolvimento (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século XX e Objetivos Estratégicos na Era Contemporânea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The  Necessary Conditions of the Economic and Social Development- The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2010), Amazônia Sustentável- Para o progresso do Brasil e combate ao aquecimento global (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2011), Os Fatores Condicionantes do Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2012), Energia no Mundo e no Brasil- Energia e Mudança Climática Catastrófica no Século XXI (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2015), As Grandes Revoluções Científicas, Econômicas e Sociais que Mudaram o Mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2016), A Invenção de um novo Brasil (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2017), Esquerda x Direita e a sua convergência (Associação Baiana de Imprensa, Salvador, 2018), Como inventar o futuro para mudar o mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2019), A humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência (Editora Dialética, São Paulo, 2021), A escalada da ciência e da tecnologia e sua contribuição ao progresso e à sobrevivência da humanidade (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2022), est l’auteur d’un chapitre du livre Flood Handbook (CRC Press, Boca Raton, Floride, États-Unis, 2022), How to protect human beings from threats to their existence and avoid the extinction of humanity (Generis Publishing, Europe, Republic of Moldova, Chișinău, 2023) et A revolução da educação necessária ao  Brasil na era contemporânea (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2023).​

THE EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION IN BRAZIL THROUGHOUT HISTORY AND THE REQUIREMENTS FOR ITS FUTURE DEVELOPMENT

Fernando Alcoforado*

This article aims to present the evolution of education in Brazil throughout history and the requirements for its future development. To achieve this objective, the articles “As origens da educação no Brasil da hegemonia católica às primeiras tentativas de organização do ensino” (The origins of education in Brazil from Catholic hegemony to the first attempts to organize teaching) [1] and “História da Educação Brasileira: da colônia ao século XX” (History of Brazilian Education: from the colony to the 20th century) {2] were analyzed, as well as the book “A revolução da educação necessária ao Brasil na era contemporânea” (The education revolution necessary for Brazil in the contemporary era) [3].

The analysis of the article “As origens da educação no Brasil da hegemonia católica às primeiras tentativas de organização do ensino” (The origins of education in Brazil from Catholic hegemony to the first attempts to organize teaching) by Marcos Marques de Oliveira allowed us to reach the conclusions set out in the following paragraphs [1].

The history of education in Brazil begins with the Portugal colonization project that counted on the decisive contribution of the Catholic Church through the Society of Jesus, that is, the Jesuits. The Jesuits’ pedagogical proposal played a fundamental role in enabling the Portuguese colonization project to go from 1500 until Brazil’s independence in 1822. Teaching was one of the main instruments of Portugal’s colonial domination, whose function was delimited by the educational disciplinary system, based by a rigid pedagogical structure imposed by the Jesuits. The Jesuits were at the forefront of the educational project from the first moment of Portugal’s actions in Brazil, which began in the 16th century.

In the colonial period, it is possible to see the difference between the Portuguese and Spanish colonization project. While Spain opened universities in its colonies, Portugal took three centuries to open a university in Brazil, which only occurred with the arrival of the Portuguese royal family in Brazil in 1808. From 1500 until the 19th century, Brazilian education focused exclusively on training of the upper layers, with the aim of preparing them for political-bureaucratic activities and liberal professions, almost always in charge of or under the influence of private religious initiative.

After the Independence of Brazil from Portugal, during Brazil’s imperial period, the central power commanded from 1826 to 1889 by D. Pedro II was in charge of higher education throughout the country and the other levels were in charge of the provinces, with the exception of Colégio Pedro II, named in honor of our second imperial ruler, which should serve as a model for provincial schools. The lack of resources and lack of interest from regional elites prevented the organization of an efficient network of schools. In the final balance, secondary education was generally taken over by private initiatives, especially by the Catholic Church. Primary education, once again, was abandoned. At the end of the Empire, the general education framework was quite precarious with few primary schools (with 250 thousand students for a country with around 14 million inhabitants, of which 85% were illiterate).

The umbilical relationship between the Catholic Church and the Portuguese colonial power was maintained in Brazil even after its independence in 1822 during the imperial period and ended with the Proclamation of the Republic when there was an official divorce between Church and State. Catholicism, until then holding the monopoly in the educational field, suffered a severe blow with the secularization that was established in Brazilian society through the liberal movement and which took shape on the national scene with the Proclamation of the Republic in 1889. In the transition between the imperial period and the Republic in Brazil, with the adherence of part of the intellectual elite to the ideals of bourgeois liberalism, education is assigned the heroic task of promoting the construction of Brazilian society on new bases.

The first Constitution of the Republic, from 1891, instituted the federative system of government and, consequently, the decentralization of education. The Union reserved the right to create higher and secondary education institutions in the states and to provide secondary education in the Federal District. The states were responsible for providing and legislating on primary education, in addition to professional education, which at the time included normal secondary schools for women and technical schools for men. At the level of public policies, there were several attempts at educational reform by the republican central government. All these reforms ended up perpetuating the educational model inherited from the colonial period. Only the demand for expanding the supply of elite education (secondary and higher education) to the rising middle classes was met by the Union.

Meanwhile, at an international level, a new dimension of liberal ideology emerged that will be expressed in the pragmatic pedagogy of the New School, based on the thinking of the North American John Dewey, who proposed a reformist school model. The New School’s thinking was assimilated by several Brazilian educators, including the great educator Anísio Teixeira, consolidating itself into an educational ideology that will influence the development of teaching in Brazil. The first document expressing this ideology is the Manifesto of the Pioneers of New Education, from 1932, which sought to overcome the partial attempts at reform made until then and to establish a single, clear and defined direction for the movement to renew national education. To this end, based on the individual right to education, it determined that the State, representing the community, assumed responsibility for organizing education, with the task of making schools accessible, in all its levels, to citizens kept in conditions of economic inferiority. . The authors of the Manifesto of the Pioneers of New Education had as their ideal an education system in which popular mass education and specialized training would appear as complementary.

Thus, with the exception of the Catholic Church, which opposed secular education and the state monopoly advocated by the Manifesto of the Pioneers of New Education, the Estado Novo dictatorship that began in 1937 incorporated the ideas and rhetoric of the New School. In the educational sphere, the rise of Getúlio Vargas to power, in the Church’s view, represented the strengthening of the ideals of the Escola Nova, which, with the defense of secular education and public schools, put at risk the hegemony of the Catholic Church in the area of education in the Brazil. However, the Catholic Church would soon find its space. After 40 years, religious education was once again allowed in public schools, proving that the Brazilian secular state was a fallacy. In the 1930s and 1940s, the objectives proposed by the pioneers of the New School were not fully achieved because the traditional dualist, elitist and academic structure of Brazilian education was preserved.

The growing need for fast and cheap labor imposed by the industrialization process in Brazil triggered by the Getúlio Vargas government had imposed new demands for technical professional qualifications. The solution found by the nascent industrial bourgeoisie was the creation of a system of technical instruction institutions unrelated to the Ministry of Education, whose exclusive objective was to meet the interests of employer unions for minimally qualified workers, as was the case with the creation of SENAI (1942 ) and SENAC (1946). The economic and political elites who directed the transition from agricultural to urban-industrial society since 1930 in Brazil were not able to create a state school, public, secular and unique for all, conceived through a pedagogical project that brought together general education with technological training focused on the world of work.

The analysis of the article História da Educação Brasileira: da colônia ao século XX” (History of Brazilian Education: from the colony to the 20th century) by Amarilio Ferreira Jr. allowed us to reach the conclusions set out in the next paragraphs [2].

The first Constitution of the Republic, from 1891, instituted the federative system of government and, consequently, the decentralization of education. The Union reserved the right to create higher and secondary education institutions in the states and to provide secondary education in the Federal District. The states were responsible for providing and legislating on primary education, in addition to professional education, which at the time included normal secondary schools for women and technical schools for men. At the level of public policies, there were several attempts at educational reform by the republican central government. All these reforms ended up perpetuating the educational model inherited from the colonial period. Only the demand for expanding the supply of elite education (secondary and higher education) to the rising middle classes was met by the Union.

Meanwhile, at an international level, a new dimension of liberal ideology emerged that will be expressed in the pragmatic pedagogy of the New School, based on the thinking of the North American John Dewey, who proposed a reformist school model. The New School’s thinking was assimilated by several Brazilian educators, including the great educator Anísio Teixeira, consolidating itself into an educational ideology that will influence the development of teaching in Brazil. The first document expressing this ideology is the Manifesto of the Pioneers of New Education, from 1932, which sought to overcome the partial attempts at reform made until then and to establish a single, clear and defined direction for the movement to renew national education. To this end, based on the individual right to education, it determined that the State, representing the community, assumed responsibility for organizing education, with the task of making schools accessible, in all its levels, to citizens kept in conditions of economic inferiority. The authors of the Manifesto of the Pioneers of New Education had as their ideal an education system in which popular mass education and specialized training would appear as complementary.

Thus, with the exception of the Catholic Church, which opposed secular education and the state monopoly advocated by the Manifesto of the Pioneers of New Education, the Estado Novo dictatorship that began in 1937 incorporated the ideas and rhetoric of the New School. In the educational sphere, the rise of Getúlio Vargas to power, in the Church’s view, represented the strengthening of the ideals of the New School, which, with the defense of secular education and public schools, put at risk the hegemony of the Catholic Church in the area of education in the Brazil. However, the Catholic Church would soon find its space. After 40 years, religious education was once again allowed in public schools, proving that the Brazilian secular state was a fallacy. In the 1930s and 1940s, the objectives proposed by the pioneers of the New School were not fully achieved because the traditional dualist, elitist and academic structure of Brazilian education was preserved.

The growing need for fast and cheap labor imposed by the industrialization process in Brazil triggered by the Getúlio Vargas government had imposed new demands for technical professional qualifications. The solution found by the nascent industrial bourgeoisie was the creation of a system of technical instruction institutions unrelated to the Ministry of Education, whose exclusive objective was to meet the interests of employer unions for minimally qualified workers, as was the case with the creation of SENAI (1942) and SENAC (1946). The economic and political elites who directed the transition from agricultural to urban-industrial society since 1930 in Brazil were not able to create a state school, public, secular and unique for all, conceived through a pedagogical project that brought together general education with technological training focused on the world of work.

The analysis of the article “History of Brazilian Education: from the colony to the 20th century”  by Amarilio Ferreira Jr. allowed us to reach the conclusions set out in the next paragraphs [2].

In 1948, the minister of education, Clemente Mariani, sent a bill to the National Congress with a secular-liberal character. The Catholic Church and conservative sectors of society reacted against the Mariani project and began to put pressure on the matter not to be approved in the Chamber of Deputies. Defenders of public and secular schools then began to mobilize at a national level and launched the “Campaign in Defense of Public Schools”, which culminated, in 1958, with the publication of the Educators’ Manifesto. The “1959 Manifesto”, as it became known, made a vehement defense of the State, public and secular school as the only educational institution capable of overcoming the ills of national education and helping to produce the “scientific and technical progress necessary to economic development” of Brazilian society.

The first LDB (Brazilian Education Guidelines and Bases Law) in the history of Brazilian education was approved in 1961, after 13 years and much ideological dispute, in December 1961 and came into force the following year. In addition to the institutionalization of the Federal Education Council, the end of discrimination between propaedeutic education, which seeks to provide foundations on certain knowledge, in a more generalist way, and professional education and the periodic elaboration of the National Education Plan, keeping the structure of the different degrees intact and existing branches of national education. The LDB/61 was, however, far below the educational demands generated by the modernizing contradictions of the capitalist logic imposed on Brazilian society from 1930 onwards because it maintained, in essence, the teaching structure inherited from the “Organic Laws” approved during the Estado Novo without breaking the binomial of elitism and exclusion that has manifested itself in Brazilian education since the colonial period.

The LDB of 1961 made it possible for public and private schools to cohabit. The national dual education system (public and private) engendered a new phase in the binomial based on elitism and educational exclusion. From then on, the schooling of the children of the elites began, roughly speaking, to have basic education in private schools with excellent quality of education, whose monthly fees were (and are still today) very high by the standards of the vast majority of the Brazilian population and the school public was intended for the children of the popular masses. The former have access to the best public universities. The latter barely complete compulsory education (currently 9 years) and are forced to enter the world of work with or without professional technical education. In other words, the good old public higher education courses in Law, Medicine and Engineering continue to be reserved for the children of the economic and political elites who have governed Brazil for centuries.

This educational situation in force in Brazil in the second half of the 20th century had a scathing critic in Paulo Freire. In 1961, the great Brazilian educator stated that Brazilian society had not yet resolved the two basic dimensions of any national education system, that is, the quantitative expansion of compulsory public school for all children of school age and the quality of school knowledge that were offered to children. Even worse, according to Paulo Freire, within the scope of the few existing schools, a conception of teaching-learning prevailed based on pedagogical contents that were completely disassociated from the concrete socioeconomic reality experienced by Brazilian society at the time. Paulo Freire developed his “pedagogy of the oppressed”. For him, the transition from a “closed society” (agrarian) to an “open society” (urban-industrial) necessarily demanded the eradication of illiteracy, as the condition of existence of the illiterate implied the manifestation of a naive consciousness in relation to the surrounding world and, therefore, reproduces the old agrarian social “status quo”.

For Paulo Freire, it was therefore necessary to free the man who lived trapped in the “closed society” through access to knowledge historically accumulated by humanity. Transitive critical consciousness, achieved through knowledge, would make it possible to make the “open society”, that is, a democratic society, viable. Thus, critical consciousness and democratic society would constitute the two fundamental conditions for man to be an active subject of his own history. In summary: the combination of freedom, made possible by the “open society”, with conscious historical action would humanize man himself. However, the transition from naive consciousness to critical consciousness, according to Paulo Freire, would not occur naturally, but rather through the work carried out in the field of education. In this sense, the political nature of his literacy method is understood, as we can read in the work “Education as a practice of freedom”.

The literacy method created by Paulo Freire was based on the so-called “popular culture circles”. These circles brought together, for example, adults from a specific rural community and carried out a broad debate about their living and working conditions and the cultural elements that manifested themselves in the daily lives of that population. Thus, based on the stories told by the community’s residents, the educator collected the most significant and representative words of the local culture throughout the discussions, and it was this popular vocabulary that served as a reference for the literacy students’ achievement of written language. Therefore, the “generating words”, commonly used in the language used in people’s daily lives, were loaded with cultural experiences lived by the subjects of the spoken language learning process.

Paulo Freire’s method of literacy frightened the reactionary segments of Brazilian society. Contrary to the dominant conception in society defended by the elites who advocated the “domestication” of the people through education, the “pedagogy of the oppressed” proposed by Paulo Freire defended the education of the people as the true practice of freedom. It can be said that the Paulo Freire method of literacy, genuinely born from Brazilian historical conditions, aborted by the 1964 coup d’état, can be classified as the most radical of the 20th century’s educational initiatives. While Paulo Freire is recognized worldwide as a great exponent of education, he is the educator most opposed by Brazil’s reactionary elites.

The 1964 coup d’état represents the most serious institutional change in the history of Brazil that occurred in the second half of the 20th century. It radically changed the course of the political process of redemocratization that Brazil had been experiencing since 1945. The military dictatorship, with the two reforms (1968 and 1971), subordinated educational policy to the economic logic of accelerated modernization of Brazilian society, imposing the unilateral discourse that the only role to be played by education was to maximize the productivity of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), regardless of the distribution of national income. Thus, in the same proportion that the 1964 coup plotters were suppressing political freedoms, government technocrats propagated the technicist ideology as a dogmatically organized system of ideas that served to legitimize the organic unity between economy and education.

The educational policy of the military regime, based on technicist ideology, also resulted in failures, since education intended as a mechanism for changes in the training of labor and integrated into the productive system, in reality, maintained high rates of illiteracy and marginalized professionals, unemployeds. The Brazilian public university, in turn, suffered from four major problems: a) a lag in curricula and the qualifications of the teaching staff, which was determined by the role of the professor (position held by the full professor); b) precarious infrastructure of research and teaching laboratories; c) existence of an academic structure that gave the university system an authoritarian characteristic; d) elitism, as it was intended for a few.

The results of the direct elections for state governors in 1982 gave rise to alternative educational projects to the technical education imposed by the military dictatorship, such as what occurred in Rio de Janeiro during the government of Leonel Brizola, which implemented the so-called CIEPs (Integrated Centers for Public Education) which were full-time schools. There, students stayed from 8 am to 5 pm, seven hours of which were dedicated to classes and the others were divided between meals, sports, guided study and medical care. Some points in this list of initiatives aimed at democratizing Brazilian public schools were criticized by conservative sectors, especially the reactionary press, which resulted in a setback with the end of the so-called CIEPs.

The educational projects implemented by the oppositions in the first half of the 1980s, when the military dictatorship was ending, basically resulted from the combination of two pedagogical trends. The hegemonic current was influenced, particularly, by the thoughts of Paulo Freire and Jean Piaget, and the result was a pedagogy that combined “genetic constructivism” with education centered on student activism. In short: it was a kind of “new school” pedagogically reinvigorated. The other was represented by the various educational concepts derived from Marxism, mainly those formulated by the Italian thinker Antonio Gramsci, who formulated a pedagogical model that valued human activity that interprets and transforms reality. However, these educational experiences adopted autonomously and in accordance with the correlations of forces that were established between existing pedagogical trends were destined to be short-lived, as in fact happened.

With the end of the military dictatorship in Brazil, the last decade of the 20th century was marked by the adoption of the neoliberal economic model by the governments of Fernando Collor de Mello (1990-1992), Itamar Franco (1992-1994) and Fernando Henrique Cardoso (1995–2002) whose guidelines were established by the Washington Consensus. This meant the reform of the Brazilian State, the privatization of state-owned companies and the fiscal adjustment that harmed public policies, in particular education, as it allowed the growth of the private sector, mainly in the context of higher education, while in public schools teaching remained even more inefficient, a situation that continues today.

Linked to the globalization thesis, the “educational packages”, emanating from the center to the periphery of the capitalist system, took away the autonomy that Brazil had to structure its own educational policies. Brazil reached the end of the 20th century without solving the major problem of public schools: the quality of education it offers to the popular classes. In 2000, for example, there were more than 30 million students attending public elementary education. Of this contingent of children enrolled in public compulsory education for eight years, three million failed and 27 million were subjected to an educational process that was degrading from the point of view of the classical cultural capital historically accumulated by humanity, as school performance in subjects such as Portuguese and mathematics indicated what some scholars call “indigent intellectual training”, crowning a century of unsuccessful reforms and inefficient educational policies. Thus, Brazilian public education generated a situation of cultural and civil segregation for the absolute majority of Brazilian children aged 7 to 14. Now, however, the exclusion of the popular classes was no longer due to the absence of school, since the issue of access had been resolved; it manifests itself by staying in the school itself, that is, the State school does not guarantee the effective learning of the essential knowledge required by Brazilian society.

From the above, it can be concluded that Brazil reached the end of the 20th century, after the end of the military dictatorship (1985) and the promulgation of the 1988 Constitution, without having managed to resolve the issue of public schools for all and with good quality of education. The Brazilian public school reached the end of the 20th century without being able to fulfill the educational role that developed republican societies gave it from the 19th century onwards, that is, to constitute an educational institution whose main function is to generate and transmit the fundamental knowledge that enable citizens to face the cultural, scientific and technological challenges created by the contemporary world. Therefore, there is still a major task to be resolved by contemporary Brazilian society: the effective consolidation of state, public, secular and quality schools for all.

The analysis of the book “The revolution in education necessary for Brazil in the contemporary era” written by Fernando Alcoforado allowed us to see what the requirements for education in Brazil in the future are, which are summarized in the following paragraphs [3].

In the contemporary era, there is an urgent need to promote a revolution in Brazil’s education system, which has become necessary because Brazilian education has great weaknesses in primary, secondary and higher education. The Dilma Rousseff government’s Education National Plan has become a mere letter of intent with 90% of targets not met and the Michel Temer government’s secondary education reform presents numerous involutions.  It can be said that the poor performance of Brazil’s education system results, among other factors, mainly from insufficient investment in Brazilian education when compared to investments in education in the best education systems in the world. Spending on education per student in Brazil (US$3,000/student) is ridiculously low compared to countries like the United States, Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, among others, which invest massively in education up to around US$15,000/ student. If Brazil wanted to match developed countries in terms of spending per student, it should more than quintuple its spending per student on the educational sector. Brazil invests 0.76% of GDP in education while Finland, whose education system is recognized worldwide for being the most efficient and qualified from pre-school to higher education, invests around 7.1% of its GDP in a very high quality education system. Brazil would practically have to increase its spending on education by 9 times to match Finland.

Spending on education in Brazil has been declining since 2014, the Ministry of Education’s budget for basic education has been declining from 2012 to 2020. The Federal Government is a federated entity that participates little in investment in education in Brazil. According to INEP (National Institute of Education and Research), in 2012, for every R$1 invested in education, municipalities invested R$0.42, States spent R$0.40 and the Union invested only R$0. 18. It is necessary to increase the federal government’s participation in investments in education at all levels. For the Brazilian government to invest in education, it needs to reduce its burden on interest payments and amortization of public debt, which committed 50.8% of the 2021 Union budget, while only 2.49% was allocated to education. To reduce the federal government’s burden on interest payments and amortization of public debt, it is necessary to reduce public debt, which reached 79.8% of GDP in 2019.

To reduce public debt, the federal government must reduce the public deficit by promoting: 1) the reduction of superfluous spending and unnecessary public bodies; 2) increasing tax collection by taxing the super-rich; 3) promoting GDP growth with the federal government playing a proactive role in making investments, especially in infrastructure, including education; 4) encouraging exports; and, 5) the renegotiation with its creditors of the public debt with the extension of interest payments so that the Brazilian State has resources for investment in various sectors, including education.

Once the problem of insufficient resources by the federal government has been resolved by addressing and solving the problem of public debt, the education revolution in Brazil can be triggered with the planning of an education system aimed at overcoming current problems and meeting the needs of the future aiming to increase the number of quality educational units and have good managers, teachers and infrastructure. For this to happen, it is necessary to increase the participation of the public sector in the country’s higher education and restrict the participation of the private sector because it presents low quality of education, high dropout rates and high student/teacher ratio, among other problems. To overcome the existing weaknesses in primary education, secondary education and higher education in Brazil, it is necessary to increase public investments in education to bring about a revolution in Brazilian education that includes the adoption of policies similar to those adopted by countries that have the best systems of education in the world such as Finland, France, China, the United States, Cuba, South Korea and Japan.

REFERENCES

  1. OLIVEIRA, Marcos Marques. As origens da educação no Brasil da hegemonia católica às primeiras tentativas de organização do ensino. Available on the website <https://www.scielo.br/j/ensaio/a/Ms7rqgdwYhBLP7q5ZTYjLhb/>.
  2. FERREIRA JR, Amarilio . História da Educação Brasileira: da colônia ao século XX. Available on the website <https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/5618173/mod_resource/content/1/Ferreira%20Jr.%2C%20AmarilioHist%C3%B3ria%20da%20Educa%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20Brasileira_%20UAB-UFSCAR.pdf>.
  3. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. A revolução da educação necessária ao Brasil na era contemporânea. Curitiba: Editora CRV, 2023.

* Fernando Alcoforado, awarded the medal of Engineering Merit of the CONFEA / CREA System, member of the Bahia Academy of Education, of the SBPC- Brazilian Society for the Progress of Science and of IPB- Polytechnic Institute of Bahia, engineer from the UFBA Polytechnic School and doctor in Territorial Planning and Regional Development from the University of Barcelona, college professor (Engineering, Economy and Administration) and consultant in the areas of strategic planning, business planning, regional planning, urban planning and energy systems, was Advisor to the Vice President of Engineering and Technology at LIGHT S.A. Electric power distribution company from Rio de Janeiro, Strategic Planning Coordinator of CEPED- Bahia Research and Development Center, Undersecretary of Energy of the State of Bahia, Secretary of Planning of Salvador, is the author of the books Globalização (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC- O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem Mundial (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2000), Os condicionantes do desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de doutorado. Universidade de Barcelona,http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globalização e Desenvolvimento (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século XX e Objetivos Estratégicos na Era Contemporânea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The Necessary Conditions of the Economic and Social Development- The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2010), Amazônia Sustentável- Para o progresso do Brasil e combate ao aquecimento global (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2011), Os Fatores Condicionantes do Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2012), Energia no Mundo e no Brasil- Energia e Mudança Climática Catastrófica no Século XXI (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2015), As Grandes Revoluções Científicas, Econômicas e Sociais que Mudaram o Mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2016), A Invenção de um novo Brasil (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2017),  Esquerda x Direita e a sua convergência (Associação Baiana de Imprensa, Salvador, 2018), Como inventar o futuro para mudar o mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2019), A humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência (Editora Dialética, São Paulo, 2021), A escalada da ciência e da tecnologia e sua contribuição ao progresso e à sobrevivência da humanidade (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2022), a chapter in the book Flood Handbook (CRC Press,  Boca Raton, Florida United States, 2022), How to protect human beings from threats to their existence and avoid the extinction of humanity (Generis Publishing, Europe, Republic of Moldova, Chișinău, 2023) and A revolução da educação necessária ao Brasil na era contemporânea (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2023). 

A EVOLUÇÃO DA EDUCAÇÃO NO BRASIL AO LONGO DA HISTÓRIA E OS REQUISITOS PARA SEU FUTURO DESENVOLVIMENTO      

Fernando Alcoforado*

Este artigo tem por objetivo apresentar a evolução da educação do Brasil ao longo da história e os requisitos para seu futuro desenvolvimento. Para alcançar este objetivo, foram analisados os artigos As origens da educação no Brasil da hegemonia católica às primeiras tentativas de organização do ensino” [1] e História da Educação Brasileira: da colônia ao século XX” {2], bem como o livro A revolução da educação necessária ao Brasil na era contemporânea” [3].

A análise do artigoAs origens da educação no Brasil da hegemonia católica às primeiras tentativas de organização do ensino” de autoria de Marcos Marques de Oliveira permitiu chegar às conclusões expostas nos próximos parágrafos [1].

A história da educação no Brasil começa como o projeto de colonização de Portugal que contou com a decisiva contribuição da Igreja Católica através da Companhia de Jesus, isto é, dos jesuítas. A proposta pedagógica dos jesuítas teve papel fundamental para que o projeto de colonização português pudesse ir de 1500 até a independência do Brasil em 1822. O ensino foi um dos principais instrumentos de dominação colonial de Portugal, cuja função foi delimitada pelo sistema disciplinar educacional, fundamentado por uma rígida estrutura pedagógica imposta pelos jesuítas. Os jesuítas estiveram à frente do projeto educacional desde o primeiro momento das ações de Portugal no Brasil, que teve início no século XVI.

No período colonial, é possível perceber a diferença entre o projeto de colonização português e espanhol. Enquanto a Espanha abriu universidades em suas colônias, Portugal demorou três séculos para abrir uma universidade no Brasil que só ocorreu com a chegada da família real portuguesa ao Brasil em 1808. De 1500 até o século XIX, a educação brasileira voltou-se exclusivamente à formação das camadas superiores, no intuito de prepará-las para as atividades político-burocráticas e das profissões liberais quase sempre a cargo ou sob a influência da iniciativa privada religiosa. 

Após a Independência do Brasil de Portugal, durante o período imperial do Brasil, o poder central comandado de 1826 a 1889 por D. Pedro II encarregou-se do ensino superior em todo o País e os demais níveis ficaram a cargo das províncias com exceção do Colégio Pedro II, nomeado em homenagem ao nosso segundo governante imperial, que deveria servir de modelo às escolas provinciais. A carência de recursos e a falta de interesse das elites regionais impediram a organização de uma rede eficiente de escolas. No balanço final, o ensino secundário foi assumido, em geral, pela iniciativa particular, especialmente pela Igreja Católica. O ensino primário, novamente, ficou abandonado. Ao final do Império, o quadro geral do ensino era bastante precário com poucas escolas primárias (com 250 mil alunos para um país com cerca de 14 milhões de habitantes, dos quais 85% eram analfabetos).  

A relação umbilical entre a Igreja Católica e o poder colonial português foi mantido no Brasil mesmo após sua independência ocorrida em 1822 durante o período imperial e chegou ao fim com a Proclamação da República quando houve o divórcio oficial entre Igreja e Estado.  O catolicismo, até então detentor do monopólio no campo educacional, sofreu um duro golpe com a laicização que se instaurou na sociedade brasileira através do movimento liberal e que ganhou corpo no cenário nacional com a Proclamação da República em 1889. Na transição entre o período imperial e a República no Brasil, com a adesão de parte da elite intelectual aos ideais do liberalismo burguês, é atribuída à educação a tarefa heroica de promover a construção da sociedade brasileira em novas bases.

A primeira Constituição da República, de 1891, institui o sistema federativo de governo e, consequentemente, a descentralização do ensino. Foi reservada à União o direito de criar instituições de ensino superior e secundário nos estados e prover a instrução secundária no Distrito Federal. Aos estados competia prover e legislar sobre a educação primária, além do ensino profissional que compreendia, na época, as escolas normais de nível médio para mulheres e as escolas técnicas para homens. Ao nível das políticas públicas, houve várias tentativas de reforma educacional por parte do governo central republicano. Todas essas reformas acabaram por perpetuar o modelo educacional herdado do período colonial. Somente a demanda para a ampliação da oferta de ensino de elite (o médio e o superior) às classes médias em ascensão foi atendida pela União.  

Enquanto isso, em nível internacional, despontava uma nova dimensão do ideário liberal que irá se expressar na pedagogia pragmática da Escola Nova, baseada no pensamento do norte-americano John Dewey, que propunha um modelo escolar de cunho reformista. O pensamento da Escola Nova foi assimilado por vários educadores brasileiros, entre eles o grande educador Anísio Teixeira, consolidando-se em uma ideologia educacional que influenciará o desenvolvimento do ensino no Brasil. O primeiro documento de expressão desta ideologia é o Manifesto dos Pioneiros da Educação Nova, de 1932, que buscava superar as tentativas parciais de reforma até então efetuadas e imprimir uma direção única, clara e definida do movimento de renovação da educação nacional. Para tanto, baseado no direito individual à educação, determinava que o Estado, representante da coletividade, assumisse a responsabilidade da organização do ensino, com a tarefa de tornar a escola acessível, em todos os seus graus, aos cidadãos mantidos em condições de inferioridade econômica. Os autores do Manifesto dos Pioneiros da Educação Nova tinham como ideal um sistema de ensino em que educação popular de massas e a formação especializada apareceriam como complementares.

Assim, à exceção da Igreja Católica que se opunha ao ensino laico e ao monopólio estatal preconizado pelo Manifesto dos Pioneiros da Educação Nova, a ditadura do Estado Novo que se inicia em 1937 incorporou o ideário e a retórica da Escola Nova. Na esfera educacional, a ascensão de Getúlio Vargas ao poder, na visão da Igreja, representava o fortalecimento dos ideais da Escola Nova, que com a defesa do ensino laico e da escola pública colocavam em risco a hegemonia da Igreja Católica na área do ensino no Brasil. Mas logo a Igreja Católica não tardaria em encontrar o seu espaço. Depois de 40 anos, o ensino religioso voltou a ser permitido nas escolas públicas, dando provas de que o Estado laico brasileiro era uma falácia. Nas décadas de 1930 e 1940, não se concretizaram plenamente os objetivos propostos pelos pioneiros da Escola Nova porque foi preservada a tradicional estrutura dualista, elitista e acadêmica do ensino brasileiro.

A crescente necessidade por mão de obra rápida e barata imposta pelo processo de industrialização do Brasil desencadeado pelo governo Getúlio Vargas impusera novas exigências por qualificação profissional técnica. A saída encontrada pela burguesia industrial nascente foi a criação de um sistema de instituições de instrução técnica desvinculadas do Ministério da Educação, cujo objetivo exclusivo era atender aos interesses dos sindicatos patronais por trabalhadores minimamente qualificados, tal como foi o caso da criação do SENAI (1942) e do SENAC (1946). As elites econômicas e políticas que dirigiram a transição da sociedade agrícola para a urbano-industrial desde 1930 no Brasil não foram capazes de criar uma escola de Estado, pública, laica e única para todos, concebida por meio de um projeto pedagógico que reunisse educação geral com formação tecnológica voltada para o mundo do trabalho.

A análise do artigoHistória da Educação Brasileira: da colônia ao século XX” de autoria de Amarilio Ferreira Jr. permitiu chegar às conclusões expostas nos próximos parágrafos [2].

Em 1948, o ministro da educação, Clemente Mariani, enviou projeto de lei ao Congresso Nacional de caráter laicista-liberal. A Igreja Católica e setores conservadores da sociedade reagiram contra o projeto Mariani e passaram a fazer pressão para que a matéria não fosse aprovada na Câmara dos Deputados. Os defensores da escola pública e laica passaram, então, a se mobilizar em âmbito nacional e desencadearam a “Campanha em Defesa da Escola Pública”, que culminou, em 1958, com a publicação do Manifesto dos Educadores. O “Manifesto de 1959”, como ficou conhecido, fazia uma veemente defesa da escola de Estado, pública e laica como a única instituição de ensino capaz de superar as mazelas da educação nacional e de ajudar a produzir o “progresso científico e técnico necessário para o desenvolvimento econômico” da sociedade brasileira.

A primeira LDB (Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação Brasileira) da história da educação brasileira foi aprovada, depois de 13 anos e muita disputa ideológica, em dezembro de 1961 e entrou em vigor no ano seguinte. Além da institucionalização do Conselho Federal de Educação, do fim da discriminação entre a educação propedêutica, que busca fornecer fundamentos sobre determinado conhecimento, de forma mais generalista, e a profissional e da elaboração periódica do Plano Nacional de Educação manteve intacta a estrutura dos diferentes graus e ramos da educação nacional existentes.  A LDB/61 estava, entretanto, muito aquém das demandas educacionais geradas pelas contradições modernizadoras da lógica capitalista imposta à sociedade brasileira a partir de 1930 porque mantinha, em essência, a estrutura de ensino herdada das “Leis Orgânicas” aprovadas durante o Estado Novo não rompendo o binômio do elitismo e da exclusão que se manifestava na educação brasileira desde o período colonial.

A LDB de 1961 possibilitou a coabitação da escola pública e da particular. O sistema nacional de ensino dual (público e privado) engendrou uma nova fase no binômio baseado no elitismo e na exclusão educacional. A partir de então a escolaridade dos filhos das elites passou, grosso modo, a ter educação básica nas escolas particulares de excelente qualidade de ensino, cujas mensalidades eram (e são até hoje) elevadíssimas para os padrões da grande maioria da população brasileira e a escola pública foi destinada para os filhos das massas populares. Os primeiros têm acesso às melhores universidades públicas. Já os segundos mal concluem a educação obrigatória (hoje, de 9 anos) e são forçados a ingressar no mundo do trabalho com ou sem instrução profissional técnica. Ou seja, os velhos e bons cursos superiores públicos de Direito, Medicina e Engenharia continuam sendo privativos dos filhos das elites econômicas e políticas que secularmente governam o Brasil.

Esta situação educacional vigente no Brasil da segunda metade do século XX teve em Paulo Freire um crítico contundente. Em 1961, o grande educador brasileiro afirmava que a sociedade brasileira ainda não havia resolvido as duas dimensões básicas de qualquer sistema nacional de educação, isto é, a expansão quantitativa da escola pública obrigatória para todas as crianças em idade escolar e a qualidade dos conhecimentos escolares que eram oferecidos às crianças. Pior ainda, segundo Paulo Freire, no âmbito das poucas escolas existentes, prevalecia uma concepção de ensino-aprendizagem baseada em conteúdos pedagógicos que estavam totalmente desassociados da realidade socioeconômica concreta vivida pela sociedade brasileira de então.  Paulo Freire desenvolveu sua “pedagogia do oprimido”. Para ele, a transição de uma “sociedade fechada” (agrária) para uma “sociedade aberta” (urbano-industrial) demandava, necessariamente, a erradicação do analfabetismo, pois a condição de existência do analfabeto implicava a manifestação de uma consciência ingênua em relação ao mundo circundante e, por conseguinte, reprodutora do velho “status quo” social agrário.

Para Paulo Freire era, portanto, necessário libertar o homem que vivia preso na “sociedade fechada” por meio do acesso ao conhecimento historicamente acumulado pela humanidade. A consciência crítica transitiva, alcançada por meio do conhecimento, tornaria possível viabilizar a “sociedade aberta”, isto é, a sociedade democrática. Assim, consciência crítica e sociedade democrática se constituiriam nas duas condições fundamentais para que o homem fosse sujeito ativo de sua própria história. Em síntese: a conjugação da liberdade, possibilitada pela “sociedade aberta”, com o fazer histórico consciente humanizaria o próprio homem. Mas a passagem da consciência ingênua para a consciência crítica, segundo Paulo Freire, não ocorreria naturalmente, mas sim mediante o trabalho desenvolvido no âmbito da educação. Nesse sentido, compreende-se o caráter político do seu método de alfabetização, tal como podemos ler na obra “Educação como prática da liberdade”. método de alfabetização criado por Paulo Freire estava baseado nos chamados “círculos de cultura popular”. Estes círculos reuniam, por exemplo, os adultos de uma determinada comunidade rural e processavam um amplo debate sobre suas condições de vida, de trabalho e dos elementos culturais que se manifestavam no cotidiano daquela população. Assim, com base nas histórias contadas pelos próprios moradores da comunidade, o educador ia recolhendo ao longo das discussões as palavras mais significativas e representativas da cultura local, e era esse vocabulário popular que servia de referência para a conquista da linguagem escrita por parte dos alfabetizandos. Portanto, as “palavras geradoras”, de uso corrente na linguagem usada no dia a dia das pessoas, eram carregadas de experiências culturais vividas pelos próprios sujeitos do processo de aprendizagem do idioma falado.

O método de Paulo Freire de alfabetização assustava os segmentos reacionários da sociedade brasileira. Ao contrário da concepção dominante na sociedade defendida pelas elites que propugnavam a “domesticação” do povo através da educação, a “pedagogia do oprimido” proposta por Paulo Freire defendia a educação do povo como a verdadeira prática da liberdade. Pode-se afirmar que o método Paulo Freire de alfabetização nascido genuinamente das condições históricas brasileiras, abortado pelo golpe de Estado de 1964, pode ser classificado como a mais radical das iniciativas educacionais do século XX. Enquanto Paulo Freire é reconhecido mundialmente como grande expoente da educação, ele é, o educador mais combatido pelas elites reacionárias do Brasil.  

O golpe de estado de 1964 representa a mudança institucional mais grave da história do Brasil ocorrida na segunda metade do século XX. Ela mudou radicalmente o curso do processo político da redemocratização que o Brasil vivia desde 1945. A ditadura militar, com as duas reformas (1968 e 1971), subordinou a política educacional à lógica econômica de modernização acelerada da sociedade brasileira impondo o discurso unilateral de que o único papel a ser desempenhado pela educação era o de maximizar a produtividade do Produto Interno Bruto (PIB), independentemente da distribuição da renda nacional. Assim, na mesma proporção em que os golpistas de 1964 iam suprimindo as liberdades políticas, os tecnocratas do governo propagavam a ideologia tecnicista como um sistema de ideias dogmaticamente organizado que servia para legitimar a unidade orgânica entre economia e educação.

A política educacional do regime militar, baseada na ideologia tecnicista, redundou também em fracassos, já que a educação pretendida como mecanismo de mudanças na formação de mão de obra e integrada ao sistema produtivo, na realidade, manteve altos índices de analfabetismo e profissionais marginalizados, desempregados. A universidade pública brasileira, por sua vez, padecia de quatro grandes problemas: a) defasagem dos currículos e da qualificação do corpo docente que era determinada pela figura do catedrático (cargo ocupado pelo professor titular); b) precariedade da infraestrutura dos laboratórios de pesquisa e de ensino; c) existência de uma estrutura acadêmica que conferia ao sistema universitário uma característica autoritária; d) elitismo, pois era destinada para poucos.

Os resultados das eleições diretas para governadores de estado, em 1982, suscitaram projetos educacionais alternativos ao ensino tecnicista imposto pela ditadura militar, como o que ocorreu no Rio de Janeiro durante o governo de Leonel Brizola que implementou os chamados CIEPs (Centros Integrados de Educação Pública) que eram escolas de período integral. Nelas, os alunos permaneciam das 8 às 17 horas, sendo sete horas destinadas às aulas e as outras ficavam divididas entre refeições, esporte, estudo dirigido e assistência médica. Alguns pontos desse rol de iniciativas destinadas a democratizar a escola pública brasileira sofreram críticas de setores conservadores, especialmente da imprensa reacionária, que resultaram em retrocesso com o fim dos chamados CIEPs.

Os projetos educacionais implantados pelas oposições na primeira metade da década de 1980, quando a ditadura militar chegava ao fim, resultaram basicamente da conjugação entre duas tendências pedagógicas. A corrente hegemônica era influenciada, particularmente, pelos pensamentos de Paulo Freire e Jean Piaget, e o resultado era uma pedagogia que combinava o “construtivismo genético” com a educação centrada no ativismo dos alunos. Em síntese: era uma espécie de “escola nova” revigorada pedagogicamente. A outra estava representada pelas várias concepções educacionais derivadas do marxismo, principalmente aquelas formuladas pelo pensador italiano Antonio Gramsci que formulou um modelo pedagógico que valorizava a atividade humana que interpreta e transforma a realidade. Mas essas experiências educacionais adotadas de forma autônoma e de acordo com as correlações de forças que se estabeleciam entre as tendências pedagógicas existentes estavam fadadas a ter vida curta como de fato aconteceu.

Com o fim da ditadura militar no Brasil, a última década do século XX ficou marcada pela adoção do modelo econômico neoliberal pelos governos Fernando Collor de Mello (1990-1992), Itamar Franco (1992-1994) e Fernando Henrique Cardoso (1995-2002) cujas diretrizes foram estabelecidas pelo Consenso de Washington. Isto significou a reforma do Estado brasileiro, a privatização de empresas estatais e o ajuste fiscal que prejudicou as políticas públicas, em particular a educação, pois permitiu o crescimento do setor privado, principalmente no âmbito do ensino superior, enquanto na escola pública o ensino ficou ainda mais ineficiente, situação esta que se mantem até hoje.

Vinculados à tese da globalização, os “pacotes educacionais”, emanados do centro para a periferia do sistema capitalista, subtraíram a autonomia que o Brasil tinha de estruturar suas próprias políticas educacionais. O Brasil chegou ao final do século XX sem resolver o grande problema da escola pública: a qualidade do ensino que oferece para as classes populares. Em 2000, por exemplo, eram mais de 30 milhões de alunos frequentando o ensino fundamental público. Desse contingente de crianças matriculadas no ensino obrigatório público de oito anos, três milhões eram reprovadas e 27 milhões submetidas a um processo educacional degradante do ponto de vista do capital cultural clássico historicamente acumulado pela humanidade, pois o desempenho escolar em disciplinas como português e matemática indicavam o que alguns estudiosos denominam de “formação intelectual indigente”, coroando um século de reformas malsucedidas e de políticas educacionais ineficientes. Assim, a educação pública brasileira gerou uma situação de segregação cultural e civil da maioria absoluta das crianças brasileiras de 7 a 14 anos. Agora, porém, a exclusão das classes populares já não se realizava pela ausência da escola, uma vez que estava resolvida a questão do acesso; ela se manifesta pela permanência na própria escola, isto é, a escola de Estado não garante a aprendizagem efetiva dos conhecimentos essenciais exigidos pela sociedade brasileira.

Pelo exposto, conclui-se que o Brasil chegou ao final do século XX, depois do fim da ditadura militar (1985) e da promulgação da Constituição de 1988, sem ter conseguido resolver a questão da escola pública para todos e com boa qualidade de ensino. A escola pública brasileira chegou ao final do século XX sem conseguir desempenhar o papel educacional que as sociedades republicanas desenvolvidas lhe conferiram a partir do século XIX, ou seja, de se constituir numa instituição de ensino cuja função principal é gerar e transmitir os saberes fundamentais que possibilitam aos cidadãos enfrentarem os desafios culturais, científicos e tecnológicos criados pelo mundo contemporâneo. Portanto, ainda existe uma grande tarefa a ser resolvida pela sociedade brasileira contemporânea: a efetiva consolidação da escola de Estado, pública, laica e de qualidade para todos.

A análise do livroA revolução da educação necessária ao Brasil na era contemporânea” de autoria de Fernando Alcoforado permitiu constatar quais são os requisitos para educação do Brasil no futuro que estão expostos, em síntese, nos próximos parágrafos [3].

Na era contemporânea, urge promover uma revolução no sistema de educação do Brasil, que se tornou necessária porque a educação brasileira apresenta grandes fragilidades nos ensinos fundamental, médio e superior, o Plano Nacional de Educação do governo Dilma Rousseff se transformou em mera carta de intenção com 90% das metas não cumpridas e a reforma do ensino médio do governo Michel Temer apresenta inúmeros retrocessos. Pode-se afirmar que o péssimo desempenho do sistema de educação do Brasil resulta, entre outros fatores, sobretudo da insuficiência de investimentos na educação brasileira quando comparado com os investimentos em educação dos melhores sistemas de educação do mundo. O gasto em educação por aluno no Brasil (US$ 3.000/aluno) tem um valor ridiculamente baixo comparado com o de países como Estados Unidos, Suíça, Dinamarca, Suécia, entre outros, que investem maciçamente em educação até cerca de US$ 15.000/aluno. Se o Brasil quisesse se igualar aos países desenvolvidos em termos de gastos por aluno, deveria mais do que quintuplicar seus gastos por aluno com o setor educacional. O Brasil investe 0,76% do PIB em educação enquanto a Finlândia, que tem o seu sistema de educação reconhecido mundialmente por ser o mais eficiente e qualificado desde a pré-escola até o ensino superior, investe cerca de 7,1% do seu PIB em um sistema de ensino de altíssima qualidade. O Brasil teria que, praticamente, aumentar de 9 vezes seus gastos em educação para se igualar à Finlândia.

Os gastos com educação no Brasil têm sido declinantes desde 2014, o orçamento do Ministério da Educação para a educação básica tem sido declinante de 2012 até 2020 O Governo Federal é um ente federado que participa pouco do investimento na educação no Brasil. Segundo o INEP (Instituto Nacional de Ensino e Pesquisa), em 2012, a cada R$ 1 investido em educação, os municípios colocaram R$ 0,42, os Estados despenderam R$ 0,40 e a União investiu apenas R$ 0,18. É preciso aumentar a participação do governo federal nos investimentos em educação em todos os níveis. Para o governo do Brasil realizar investimentos em educação, precisa reduzir seus encargos com o pagamento de juros e amortização da dívida pública que comprometeu 50,8% do orçamento da União 2021, enquanto destinou apenas 2,49% para a educação. Para reduzir os encargos do governo federal com o pagamento de juros e amortização da dívida pública, é preciso que ocorra a redução da dívida pública que alcançou 79,8% do PIB em 2019.

Para reduzir a dívida pública, é preciso que o governo federal reduza o déficit público promovendo: 1) a redução dos gastos supérfluos e órgãos públicos desnecessários; 2) aumentando a arrecadação de impostos com a taxação dos super-ricos; 3) a promoção do crescimento do PIB com o governo federal exercendo um papel proativo na realização de investimentos, sobretudo em infraestrutura, entre as quais a educação; 4) o incentivo às exportações; e, 5) a renegociação com seus credores da dívida pública com o alongamento do pagamento dos juros para o Estado brasileiro dispor de recursos para investimento em vários setores, inclusive em educação.

Resolvido o problema da insuficiência de recursos pelo governo federal com o equacionamento e solução do problema da dívida pública, a revolução da educação no Brasil poderá ser desencadeada com o planejamento de um sistema de educação voltado para superar os problemas atuais e atender as necessidades do futuro tendo como objetivo aumentar o número de unidades educacionais de qualidade e dispor de bons gestores, docentes e infraestrutura. Para que isto aconteça, é preciso aumentar a participação do setor público no ensino superior do País e restringir a participação do setor privado porque apresenta baixa qualidade de ensino, altas taxas de evasão e alta relação aluno/professor, entre outros problemas. Para superar as fragilidades existentes no ensino fundamental, no ensino médio e no ensino superior do Brasil, é preciso elevar os investimentos públicos em educação para fazer uma revolução na educação brasileira que contemple a adoção de políticas similares às adotadas pelos países que possuem os melhores sistemas de educação do mundo como os da Finlândia, da França, da China, dos Estados Unidos, de Cuba, da Coreia do Sul e do Japão.

REFERÊNCIAS

  1. OLIVEIRA, Marcos Marques. As origens da educação no Brasil da hegemonia católica às primeiras tentativas de organização do ensino. Disponível no website <https://www.scielo.br/j/ensaio/a/Ms7rqgdwYhBLP7q5ZTYjLhb/>.
  2. FERREIRA JR, Amarilio . História da Educação Brasileira: da colônia ao século XX. Disponível no website <https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/5618173/mod_resource/content/1/Ferreira%20Jr.%2C%20AmarilioHist%C3%B3ria%20da%20Educa%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20Brasileira_%20UAB-UFSCAR.pdf>.
  3. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. A revolução da educação necessária ao Brasil na era contemporânea. Curitiba: Editora CRV, 2023.

* Fernando Alcoforado, 84, condecorado com a Medalha do Mérito da Engenharia do Sistema CONFEA/CREA, membro da Academia Baiana de Educação, da SBPC- Sociedade Brasileira para o Progresso da Ciência e do IPB- Instituto Politécnico da Bahia, engenheiro pela Escola Politécnica da UFBA e doutor em Planejamento Territorial e Desenvolvimento Regional pela Universidade de Barcelona, professor universitário (Engenharia, Economia e Administração) e consultor nas áreas de planejamento estratégico, planejamento empresarial, planejamento regional e planejamento de sistemas energéticos, foi Assessor do Vice-Presidente de Engenharia e Tecnologia da LIGHT S.A. Electric power distribution company do Rio de Janeiro, Coordenador de Planejamento Estratégico do CEPED- Centro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento da Bahia, Subsecretário de Energia do Estado da Bahia, Secretário do Planejamento de Salvador, é autor dos livros Globalização (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC- O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem Mundial (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2000), Os condicionantes do desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de doutorado. Universidade de Barcelona,http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globalização e Desenvolvimento (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século XX e Objetivos Estratégicos na Era Contemporânea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The Necessary Conditions of the Economic and Social Development- The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2010), Amazônia Sustentável- Para o progresso do Brasil e combate ao aquecimento global (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2011), Os Fatores Condicionantes do Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2012), Energia no Mundo e no Brasil- Energia e Mudança Climática Catastrófica no Século XXI (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2015), As Grandes Revoluções Científicas, Econômicas e Sociais que Mudaram o Mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2016), A Invenção de um novo Brasil (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2017),  Esquerda x Direita e a sua convergência (Associação Baiana de Imprensa, Salvador, 2018, em co-autoria), Como inventar o futuro para mudar o mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2019), A humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência (Editora Dialética, São Paulo, 2021), A escalada da ciência e da tecnologia ao longo da história e sua contribuição ao progresso e à sobrevivência da humanidade (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2022), de capítulo do livro Flood Handbook (CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, United States, 2022), How to protect human beings from threats to their existence and avoid the extinction of humanity (Generis Publishing, Europe, Republic of Moldova, Chișinău, 2023) e A revolução da educação necessária ao Brasil na era contemporânea (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2023).

LA MONTÉE DE L’ÉDUCATION DANS LE MONDE DE LA PRÉHISTOIRE À L’ÈRE CONTEMPORAINE (Partie 2- L’évolution de l’éducation dans le monde du XVIIIe siècle au XXIe siècle)

Fernando Alcoforado*

Cet article vise à présenter l’évolution de l’éducation dans le monde du XVIIIe siècle au XXIe siècle. Cet article représente la suite de la première partie de l’article qui aborde l’évolution de l’éducation dans le monde de la Préhistoire au XVIIIe siècle. L’analyse de l’évolution de l’éducation dans le monde depuis la Préhistoire jusqu’au XVIIIe siècle révèle que pendant la majeure partie de l’histoire de l’humanité, l’éducation formelle n’était accessible qu’à un secteur restreint et privilégié de la société. Lorsqu’il était fourni à des secteurs plus larges de la société, il servait principalement à des fins culturelles, religieuses, sociales, spirituelles et militaires. Cependant, dans aucun des systèmes éducatifs mis en œuvre dans l’Antiquité et au Moyen Âge, le développement de compétences utiles aux professions professionnelles des adultes n’était la principale préoccupation. Les taux d’alphabétisation ont été négligeables pendant la majeure partie de l’existence humaine. Au Moyen Âge, les taux d’alphabétisation étaient inférieurs à 10 % dans des pays comme la Chine, la France, l’Allemagne, la Belgique et les Pays-Bas et encore plus bas dans d’autres parties du monde [3].

Le XVIIIe siècle a été un moment marquant dans l’histoire de l’humanité car c’est à cette époque que le siècle des Lumières a émergé en Europe et que la révolution industrielle a eu lieu en Angleterre, qui a transformé la société mondiale donnant une grande impulsion au développement du capitalisme à travers la planète. C’est également à cette époque que surviennent l’indépendance des États-Unis et la Révolution française, portées par l’idéal des Lumières. Comme cela ne pouvait manquer de se produire, tous ces événements ont contribué aux progrès dans le domaine de l’éducation, comme on peut le constater à la lecture des des prochains paragraphes.

1. L’éducation au XVIIIe siècle (1701 à 1800)

Le XVIIIe siècle est marqué par de nombreuses transformations fortement influencées par les idées des Lumières. Parmi ces transformations, nous pouvons souligner : l’indépendance des États-Unis, la Révolution française et la 1ère révolution industrielle, toutes basées sur les idées des Lumières qui cherchaient à défendre la liberté, le progrès, la tolérance, la fraternité, le gouvernement constitutionnel et la séparation entre l’Église et l’État. C’était une époque de consolidation du capitalisme en tant que système économique dominant et de construction de l’État national qui représentait les intérêts de la classe économiquement la plus puissante : la bourgeoisie. L’éducation comme droit pour tous, l’obligation de l’État d’entretenir les écoles, le droit à l’enseignement public gratuit, la garantie que les écoles publiques ne soient sous le contrôle d’aucune croyance religieuse (laïcité) étaient des drapeaux défendus par la bourgeoisie révolutionnaire, mais qui n’étaient pas pleinement mise en pratique après qu’elle soit devenue la classe dominante [1].

Au cours des siècles qui ont précédé la révolution industrielle en Angleterre en 1786, alors que l’Europe réalisait ses premiers progrès technologiques et commerciaux, l’importance de l’éducation a commencé à croître. À partir de ce moment, pour la première fois dans l’histoire, il y a eu la formation de ressources humaines visant à répondre aux besoins de l’industrialisation grâce à une main-d’œuvre dotée d’alphabétisation, de connaissances mathématiques et de compétences mécaniques. Les travailleurs ont développé leurs compétences principalement grâce à une formation sur le terrain. L’industrialisation (1ère révolution industrielle en 1786 et 2ème révolution industrielle en 1850) a déclenché une révolution dans l’éducation de masse dans plusieurs pays européens et aux États-Unis. Le développement de certaines compétences était nécessaire à la création d’une société industrielle. Les pays industrialisés du monde entier ont soutenu l’offre d’éducation publique [3].

La première révolution industrielle et la naissance des usines ont créé un espace pour l’émergence d’une institution scolaire publique moderne. L’usine et l’école naissent ensemble, les lois qui créent les écoles publiques s’unissent aux lois qui suppriment l’apprentissage en entreprise. L’influence catholique dans l’éducation a commencé à décliner, et son déclin s’est accentué au XIXe siècle, avec la suppression de l’ordre des Jésuites. Au XVIIIe siècle, le processus de sécularisation de l’éducation progresse avec la suppression de l’influence religieuse. À partir du XVIIIe siècle, il était considéré comme une condition pour qu’un travailleur soit au moins alphabétisé et capable de faire fonctionner les machines qui étaient le symbole de la révolution industrielle et le droit à l’éducation des femmes et du peuple en général était reconnu, un droit à l’éducation cela les libérerait des conditions de retard psychologique et cognitif et de marginalité et les placerait comme des éléments productifs au sein de la société [1].

Jean-Jacques Rousseau est considéré comme le père de la pédagogie moderne pour avoir représenté sa pensée la plus avancée car il a cherché à montrer à l’homme comment atteindre le bonheur, tant au niveau individuel que par rapport à la société. Dans le premier cas, il a formulé une pédagogie dans laquelle il trace les lignes dans le but de faire de l’enfant un bon adulte fondé sur sa croyance en la bonté naturelle de l’homme. Les objectifs de l’éducation pour Rousseau impliquent deux aspects : le développement du potentiel naturel de l’enfant et sa prévention des maux sociaux. Dans le deuxième cas, il a théorisé sur le problème politique et a rédigé le Contrat Social qui a formulé la constitution d’un État en tant qu’organisateur de la société civile telle qu’on la connaît aujourd’hui. Rousseau croyait qu’il serait possible de penser une société idéale, reflétant ainsi son idéologie dans la conception de la Révolution française à la fin du XVIIIe siècle. Selon Rousseau, il serait possible de préserver la liberté naturelle de l’homme et en même temps de garantir la sécurité et le bien-être de la vie en société à travers un contrat social par lequel prévaudrait la souveraineté de la société, la souveraineté politique de la volonté collective [1] .

La Révolution française de 1789 a signifié l’intervention de l’État dans l’éducation traditionnellement confiée à l’Église catholique avec l’adoption d’une politique visant à une école qui développe les capacités de l’élève, qui instaure une véritable égalité entre les citoyens, qui assure une totale liberté d’enseignement et cela valorise la culture scientifique. Cinq niveaux d’écoles ont été créés : primaire, secondaire, instituts, lycées et universités (société nationale des sciences et des arts). Les troubles révolutionnaires ont empêché la réalisation de ce projet. En 1794, les révolutionnaires modérés (Girondiens) renversent le gouvernement jacobin de Robespierre et prennent le contrôle de la Révolution. Face à la menace de guerre civile, les Girondins réalisent le « Coup d’État du 18 brumaire » lors de la prise du pouvoir par Napoléon Bonaparte. Au pouvoir, la politique expansionniste de Napoléon imposa les intérêts français en Europe et diffusa également des orientations laïques, étatiques et civiles dans la réorganisation des systèmes éducatifs. Malgré la force révolutionnaire émanant de la France, des propositions d’intervention de l’État dans le domaine de l’éducation avaient déjà été faites avant 1789 [1].

C’est en 1717, en Prusse, que l’enseignement public fut créé comme école obligatoire pour les enfants de 5 à 12 ans, par le roi Frédéric-Guillaume. Plus tard, des lois ont été adoptées pour empêcher l’embauche de tout enfant qui n’aurait pas terminé cette étude obligatoire. Cet enseignement obligatoire intéressait profondément l’État pour la formation des soldats et des ouvriers, mais il révolutionna la société sur plusieurs aspects. C’est le roi Frédéric-Guillaume qui a inauguré le système d’enseignement obligatoire prussien, le premier système national en Europe. En 1717, il ordonna la fréquentation obligatoire de tous les enfants dans les écoles publiques et, dans des actes ultérieurs, prévoya la construction de davantage d’écoles. Le successeur de Frédéric II, Frédéric-Guillaume III, baron Vom Stein, a poursuivi cet idéal éducatif en abolissant les écoles privées semi-religieuses, en décrétant la nécessité d’un examen d’État et d’une certification pour tous les enseignants, entre autres mesures politiques concernant l’éducation. En 1812, l’examen de fin d’études scolaires fut rétabli comme condition nécessaire pour l’entrée d’un enfant dans les écoles publiques, et un système complexe de bureaucrates fut établi pour superviser les écoles dans les campagnes et les villes [2]. En Angleterre, l’enseignement mutuel est apparu à la fin du XVIIIe siècle, une initiative éducative promue par des particuliers dans laquelle des adolescents instruits directement par le maître servaient d’assistants ou de moniteurs pour enseigner à d’autres adolescents. En Angleterre, pays pionnier de la révolution industrielle, l’enseignement avait tendance à être dispensé par le secteur privé selon la méthode de l’enseignement mutuel, contrairement à l’Allemagne et à la France où prédominait l’initiative de l’État [1].

2. L’éducation au XIXe siècle (1801 à 1900)

Au XIXe siècle naissent les pédagogies de Pestalozzi, ainsi que les pédagogies positiviste et socialiste. La pédagogie de Pestalozzi reprend la pédagogie de Rousseau, qui considérait que l’homme est bon et a besoin d’être aidé dans son développement, considère que l’éducation morale, intellectuelle et professionnelle doit se développer en étroite relation l’une avec l’autre et considère également que l’enseignement doit prendre en compte les différents expériences que chaque étudiant doit réaliser dans son propre environnement. La pédagogie positiviste d’Émile Durkheim considérait que l’éducation est un apprentissage social et un moyen de conformer les individus aux normes et valeurs collectives des sociétés. La pédagogie socialiste proposée par Karl Marx et Friedrich Engels considérait que l’éducation signifie formation intellectuelle, éducation physique et enseignement technologique et que c’est par l’éducation que la société se transforme. Marx et Engels défendaient la thèse selon laquelle l’école devait être entièrement laïque et libre de l’influence de l’Église et de l’État [1].

C’est en 1833 qu’une loi révolutionne l’enseignement primaire en France et dans le monde : la loi qui instaure l’obligation d’une école primaire pour les enfants dans les communes de plus de 500 habitants, en plus d’une école de formation d’instituteurs de l’éducation fondamentale dans chaque département français. Jules Ferry, alors ministre de l’Éducation, approuve en 1881 une loi instaurant la gratuité des écoles, puis en 1882 une deuxième loi qui rend l’éducation des enfants âgés de 3 à 6 ans obligatoire et laïque. Ces lois ont servi de point de départ à de nouvelles lois sur l’éducation qui allaient émerger dans le monde entier. La Révolution française a tenté de façonner l’étudiant sur la base de la conscience de classe qui était au centre du contenu du programme. La bourgeoisie était claire sur ce qu’elle attendait de l’éducation : des travailleurs formés en tant que citoyens participant à une nouvelle société libérale et démocratique. À partir du XVIe siècle, l’Allemagne s’engage dans cette direction. En France, cette impulsion s’est produite avec la Révolution française. L’Angleterre a subi des pressions en matière d’enseignement scolaire avec la révolution industrielle. L’expansion scolaire s’est consolidée au XIXe siècle lorsque l’intérêt pour l’éducation en tant qu’élément de valorisation d’une nation est devenu évident. Il est important de noter qu’en 1850, le taux d’analphabétisme des adultes en Europe occidentale était de l’ordre de 40 à 45 % de la population. Avec l’inclusion de la Russie, le taux d’analphabétisme atteint 60 %. En Italie, en Espagne, au Portugal et en Grèce, le taux d’analphabétisme atteint 60 à 70 % [1]. Ces chiffres démontrent que l’éducation était un privilège réservé à quelques personnes en Europe.

L’enseignement à distance (EAD), largement utilisé aujourd’hui, médiatisé par des technologies dans lesquelles les étudiants et les enseignants sont séparés spatialement et/ou temporellement, c’est-à-dire qu’ils ne sont pas physiquement présents dans un environnement d’enseignement-apprentissage en face à face, est connu depuis le 19ème siècle. En 1833, une annonce publiée en Suède faisait déjà référence à l’enseignement par correspondance, et en Angleterre, en 1840. L’amélioration des services postaux, la rationalisation des moyens de transport et, surtout, le développement technologique appliqué au domaine de la communication et de l’information. a eu une influence décisive sur le sort de l’enseignement à distance. Dès lors commence l’utilisation d’un nouveau moyen de communication, la radio, inventée par Marconi en 1896, qui pénètre également dans l’éducation formelle. La radio a connu un grand succès dans les expériences nationales et internationales, ayant été largement explorée en Amérique latine dans les programmes d’enseignement à distance, notamment au Brésil [4].

3. L’éducation au XXe siècle (1901 à 2000)

Au XXe siècle, le débat pédagogique impliquait deux courants théoriques majeurs : la Nouvelle École et la conception marxiste, la première identifiée au capitalisme et la seconde au socialisme. Aucun de ces deux courants n’a été pleinement appliqué. La Nouvelle École  a été le mouvement pédagogique qui a eu la plus grande influence sur l’éducation au XXe siècle. Son théoricien était John Dewey qui avait Anísio Teixeira comme disciple au Brésil. John Dewey a défendu la thèse selon laquelle l’école ne pouvait rester à l’écart de la transformation productive et de la croissance économique, a souligné la fonction démocratique de l’éducation et valorisé la science comme méthode d’éducation démocratique. La pédagogie de Dewey s’inspire du pragmatisme, en contact permanent entre les moments théoriques et pratiques, s’entremêle avec la recherche en sciences expérimentales et, en particulier, en psychologie et en sociologie et s’engage à construire une philosophie de l’éducation visant à former le citoyen doté d’un état d’esprit moderne, scientifique et ouvert à la collaboration. La pédagogie de Dewey s’inscrit dans un mouvement appelé « école active » ou « école nouvelle » de la fin du XIXe siècle aux années 1930 du XXe siècle. La pédagogie de Dewey valorise l’enfant, le plaçant au centre de l’activité didactique, s’opposant aux caractéristiques autoritaires de l’école traditionnelle [1].

La pédagogie marxiste a établi une combinaison entre éducation et société parce que chaque pratique éducative intègre des valeurs et des intérêts idéologiques liés à la structure économique et politique de la société, elle a adopté des stratégies éducatives considérant la centralité du travail dans la formation de l’homme axée sur l’avenir et le rôle prioritaire qu’il doit souligner la valeur de l’éducation intégralement humaine de tous les peuples libérés des conditions de soumission et d’aliénation. À l’époque préstalinienne, l’école soviétique était profondément influencée par la pédagogie d’Anton Makarenko, le plus grand pédagogue russe, qui mettait l’accent sur le travail, le collectif, la collaboration, la perspective de la « joie de demain » et le bonheur de tous et pas seulement le bonheur de l’individu tel que le prônait Rousseau et les révolutionnaires des Lumières. Tandis que la Nouvelle École de John Dewey devient une référence dans les pays capitalistes, le marxisme influence l’éducation en Union soviétique et dans les pays socialistes d’Europe de l’Est. Ni la nouvelle école n’a prévalu dans les pays capitalistes, ni la pédagogie marxiste ne s’est matérialisée en Union soviétique ou dans les pays d’Europe de l’Est [1].

L’idéologue marxiste Antonio Gramsci a formulé un modèle pédagogique plus riche. Dans ses théories, il valorise l’activité humaine qui interprète et transforme la réalité. Gramsci croyait qu’il était possible de rassembler des classes ou des groupes sociaux intéressés par la construction d’un changement social pour construire une hégémonie culturelle et politique contraire au capitalisme. Gramsci considérait que l’hégémonie culturelle se construit grâce à l’action de nombreuses institutions éducatives qui doivent couvrir chaque citoyen. Gramsci a développé la proposition pédagogique de « l’école unique » cherchant à assimiler le travail intellectuel et le travail productif, développant la capacité de penser et de savoir se diriger dans la vie. Quant au principe et aux contenus pédagogiques, il défendait l’humanisme socialiste et « l’école unique de culture générale » (travail intellectuel et travail manuel) suivie d’écoles spécialisées (professionnelles) [1].

Au XXe siècle, plusieurs innovations pédagogiques originales ont eu un écho en Europe et aux États-Unis dans les pays en développement, comme la campagne d’éducation des adultes appliquant des modèles de sensibilisation, comme l’a fait Paulo Freire au Brésil. Selon Paulo Freire, dans les quelques écoles existantes prévalait une conception d’enseignement-apprentissage basée sur des contenus pédagogiques complètement dissociés de la réalité socio-économique concrète vécue par la société brésilienne de l’époque. Paulo Freire a développé sa « pédagogie des opprimés ». Pour lui, le passage d’une « société fermée » (agraire) à une « société ouverte » (urbaine-industrielle) exigeait nécessairement l’éradication de l’analphabétisme, car la condition d’existence des analphabètes impliquait la manifestation d’une conscience naïve par rapport à au monde environnant et reproduit donc le vieux « statu quo » social agraire. Pour Paulo Freire, il fallait donc libérer l’homme qui vivait enfermé dans la « société fermée » grâce à l’accès aux connaissances historiquement accumulées par l’humanité.

4. L’éducation au 21e siècle (2001 à aujourd’hui)

À l’époque contemporaine, l’enseignement ne se limite plus au présentiel pour devenir également non présentiel ou partiellement présentiel avec l’enseignement à distance (EAD), qui est, à l’époque moderne, une modalité d’enseignement médiatisés par des technologies dans lesquelles les étudiants et les enseignants sont séparés dans l’espace et/ou dans le temps, c’est-à-dire qu’ils ne sont pas physiquement présents dans un environnement d’enseignement-apprentissage en face-à-face. Aujourd’hui, l’éducation peut être dispensée en personne, semi-en personne et à distance. L’enseignement présentiel correspond à des cours réguliers où enseignants et étudiants se rencontrent toujours dans un établissement d’enseignement. L’enseignement mixte se déroule en partie en classe et en partie à distance, en utilisant les technologies de l’information. Actuellement, l’EAD permet d’insérer l’étudiant en tant que sujet dans son processus d’apprentissage, avec l’avantage qu’il découvre également des moyens de devenir un sujet actif de recherche et de partage de contenus. Dans l’enseignement à distance, il n’y a pas de différence entre sa méthodologie et celle utilisée dans l’enseignement en présentiel. Ce qui change, au fond, ce n’est pas la méthodologie pédagogique, mais la forme de communication. Dans ce processus d’apprentissage, ainsi que dans l’enseignement ordinaire, le conseiller d’apprentissage ou tuteur agit comme un « médiateur », c’est-à-dire celui qui établit un réseau de communication et d’apprentissage multidirectionnel [4].

Aujourd’hui, les possibilités de l’EAD sont vastes. C’est possible suivre un cours à distance pratiquement de la même manière que les cours en présentiel, avec des étudiants assistant à des cours en ligne avec professeur, avec diffusion de contenu audiovisuel. Les évaluations peuvent être réalisées en temps réel, également via le réseau, avec le temps nécessaire pour les réaliser. La méthodologie pédagogique, la manière d’évaluer les apprentissages des étudiants et la performance du personnel enseignant dans l’enseignement à distance ont connu une révolution. À l’étranger, on constate une tendance à fermer la frontière entre l’enseignement à distance et l’enseignement en présentiel. Les cours qui se déroulaient auparavant exclusivement en présentiel incluent désormais une partie dispensée à distance. Au Brésil, depuis la création de l’Institut Monitor en 1939, plusieurs expériences d’enseignement à distance ont été initiées et réalisées avec un succès relatif. Les expériences brésiliennes, gouvernementales et privées, ont été nombreuses et ont représenté, au cours des dernières décennies, la mobilisation de grandes quantités de ressources. Actuellement, l’enseignement non présentiel mobilise des ressources pédagogiques du monde entier presque, tant dans les pays industrialisés que dans les pays en développement. Des cours nouveaux et plus complexes sont développés, tant au sein des systèmes éducatifs formels que dans les domaines de la formation professionnelle [4].

Les progrès technologiques ont facilité la diffusion des connaissances, obscurcissant la centralité de l’école, rendant nécessaire la redéfinition de son rôle à l’époque contemporaine. L’école n’est plus le seul lieu de transmission des savoirs. Mais à l’époque contemporaine, c’est à l’école d’assurer la formation humaine complète [5]. Le grand défi éducatif du futur est représenté par les changements rapides qui se produisent dans le monde du travail grâce aux progrès technologiques, en particulier l’impact de l’intelligence artificielle, née de l’informatique et qui est un domaine extrêmement multidisciplinaire, impliquant la psychologie, les neurosciences, Théorie de la décision et Économie, ce qui pourrait conduire à la fin de certaines professions et générer un chômage massif des travailleurs qualifiés et non qualifiés. Tout cela suggère que nous vivons une transition qui exerce d’énormes pressions sur l’économie et la société. L’éducation proposée sous sa forme actuelle aux travailleurs et aux étudiants se préparant à entrer sur le marché du travail risque d’être inefficace. En d’autres termes, les systèmes éducatifs préparent les travailleurs à un monde du travail qui cesse d’exister [5].

Ces changements nécessitent l’adoption de nouvelles mesures visant à qualifier la main d’œuvre, qui doit savoir utiliser la technologie comme un complément, un outil, et non comme un substitut à ses compétences. Certaines fonctions sont attribuées à des machines et systèmes intelligents. De nouvelles fonctions pour les êtres humains émergent dans ce nouveau scénario. Il appartient aux planificateurs du système éducatif d’identifier le rôle de l’être humain dans le monde du travail dans un futur marqué par la présence de machines intelligentes pour opérer une vaste révolution dans l’enseignement à tous les niveaux, y compris la qualification des enseignants et la structuration d’unités d’enseignement pour préparer les étudiants à un monde du travail dans lequel les gens seront confrontés à des machines intelligentes. Les programmes des unités d’enseignement à tous les niveaux doivent être profondément restructurés pour atteindre ces objectifs [5].

Pour s’adapter aux changements de l’économie et de la société induits par le progrès technologique, une révolution dans les systèmes éducatifs est déjà en cours à l’époque contemporaine en ce qui concerne l’adoption de nouvelles méthodologies d’enseignement telles que celles décrites ci-dessous [6] :

1. Salles de classe – Au lieu d’être destinées à la théorie, les salles de classe viseront la pratique. L’étudiant apprend la théorie à la maison et pratique en classe avec l’aide d’un enseignant/mentor.

2. Apprentissage personnalisé – Les étudiants apprendront avec des outils qui s’adaptent à leurs propres capacités, pouvant apprendre à différents moments et lieux. Cela signifie que les étudiants au-dessus de la moyenne seront confrontés à des exercices plus difficiles et que ceux qui ont plus de difficultés auront la possibilité de s’entraîner davantage jusqu’à atteindre le niveau souhaité. Ce processus permettra aux enseignants de mieux voir clairement de quel type d’aide chaque élève a besoin.

3. Libre choix – Les étudiants auront la liberté de modifier leur processus d’apprentissage, en choisissant les matières qu’ils souhaitent apprendre en fonction de leurs propres préférences et pourront utiliser différents appareils, programmes et techniques qu’ils jugent nécessaires à leur propre apprentissage.

4. Applicabilité pratique – Les connaissances ne resteront pas seulement théoriques, elles seront mises en pratique à travers des projets afin que les étudiants acquièrent la maîtrise de la technique et pratiquent également l’organisation, le travail d’équipe et le leadership.

5. QE > QI (quotient émotionnel > quotient intellectuel) – La technologie apportant plus d’efficacité et remplaçant de plus en plus le travail humain dans divers domaines, la formation doit inclure la présence de compétences essentiellement humaines et valoriser davantage les interactions sociales. Les écoles doivent offrir davantage de possibilités aux étudiants d’acquérir des compétences concrètes qui feront la différence dans leur emploi. Cela signifie plus d’espace pour les programmes de travail, plus de projets collaboratifs, plus de pratique.

6. Le système d’évaluation va changer – Beaucoup affirment que le système de questions et réponses dans les examens n’est pas efficace, car de nombreux étudiants se contentent de mémoriser le contenu et l’oublient le lendemain de l’évaluation. De plus, ce système n’évalue pas de manière adéquate ce que l’étudiant est réellement capable de faire avec ce contenu dans la pratique. La tendance est donc à ce que les évaluations aient lieu lors de la réalisation de projets réels avec les étudiants avec les étudiants exécutant les projets.

Le professeur José Moran, l’un des fondateurs du projet Escola do Futuro (École du futur) de l’USP (Université de São Paulo), chercheur et concepteur de projets innovants en éducation mettant l’accent sur les valeurs, les méthodologies actives, les modèles flexibles et les technologies numériques, considère que l’éducation du futur devrait avoir les caractéristiques suivantes [7] :

1. Il ne faut pas adopter un modèle, une proposition ou une voie unique pour l’éducation. Travailler avec des défis, avec des projets réels, avec des jeux semble être aujourd’hui la voie la plus importante, qui peut être réalisée de différentes manières et dans différents contextes. C’est possible enseigner à travers des problèmes et des projets dans un modèle disciplinaire et dans des modèles sans disciplines isolées ; avec des modèles plus ouverts – avec une construction plus participative et procédurale – et avec des modèles plus scénarisés, préparés à l’avance, planifiés dans leurs moindres détails.

2. Certaines composantes sont fondamentales pour la réussite de l’apprentissage : la création de défis, d’activités, de jeux qui apportent réellement les compétences nécessaires à chaque étape, qui demandent des informations pertinentes, qui offrent des récompenses stimulantes, qui combinent des parcours personnels avec une participation significative à des groupes, qui font partie de plateformes adaptatives, qui reconnaissent chaque élève et en même temps apprennent de l’interaction, le tout en utilisant des technologies appropriées. L’articulateur des étapes individuelles et collectives est l’enseignant, avec sa capacité de suivi, de médiation, d’analyse des processus, des résultats, des lacunes et des besoins, en fonction des chemins parcourus par les élèves individuellement et en groupe. Ce nouveau rôle de l’enseignant est plus complexe que le précédent de transmission d’informations. Il faut une préparation à des compétences plus larges, en plus de la connaissance du contenu, comme savoir s’adapter au groupe et à chaque élève ; planifier, surveiller et évaluer des activités significatives et différentes.

3. L’enseignement et l’apprentissage peuvent se faire de manière beaucoup plus flexible, active et basée sur le rythme de chaque élève. Le modèle le plus intéressant et le plus prometteur d’utilisation de la technologie consiste à concentrer les informations de base dans l’environnement virtuel et les activités plus créatives et supervisées en classe. La combinaison de l’apprentissage par des défis, des problèmes réels et des jeux est très importante pour que les élèves apprennent par la pratique, apprennent ensemble et apprennent également à leur propre rythme. C’est également décisif pour valoriser le rôle de l’enseignant en tant que gestionnaire de processus riches d’apprentissage significatifs et non en tant que simple transmetteur d’informations. Si nous changeons la mentalité des enseignants pour qu’ils soient médiateurs, ils pourront utiliser des ressources à proximité, des technologies simples, comme celles d’un téléphone portable, un appareil photo pour illustrer, un programme gratuit pour combiner des images et raconter des histoires intéressantes avec elles et pour que les élèves soient auteurs, protagonistes de leur processus d’apprentissage.

4. Les défis liés à la transformation de l’éducation sont structurels. Il est nécessaire d’augmenter le nombre d’écoles de qualité, d’écoles dotées de bons gestionnaires, d’enseignants et d’infrastructures efficaces, capables de motiver les élèves et de promouvoir véritablement un apprentissage significatif, complexe et complet. Il faut un plan de carrière, une formation et une reconnaissance pour les responsables de l’éducation et les enseignants. Des politiques de formation cohérentes sont nécessaires pour attirer les meilleurs enseignants, les rémunérer correctement et mieux les qualifier, ainsi que des politiques de gestion innovantes qui apportent des modèles de gestion efficaces à l’enseignement de base et supérieur.

5. Les éducateurs doivent apprendre à s’épanouir en tant que personnes et en tant que professionnels, dans des contextes précaires et difficiles, à toujours évoluer dans tous les domaines, à être plus affectueux et en même temps à savoir gérer des groupes. Ils doivent devenir des éducateurs inspirants et motivants.

La gestion et l’infrastructure existante d’une unité éducative sont importantes pour l’enseignement à tous les niveaux. Cependant, la réussite des apprentissages des élèves dépend de l’enseignant qui, dans l’éducation du futur, ne sera plus un simple passeur d’informations auprès des élèves et assumera le rôle d’articulateur de l’enseignement dans les activités individuelles et collectives avec sa capacité à surveiller, servir de médiateur, pour analyser les processus, les résultats, les lacunes et les besoins, en fonction des chemins parcourus par les étudiants individuellement et en groupe. Il est prouvé dans le monde entier que l’enseignant est la clé d’un enseignement de qualité et, par conséquent, de l’amélioration des performances des élèves.

LES RÉFÉRENCES

  1. BITTAR, Marisa. A História da educação. Da Antiguidade à era contemporânea. São Carlos: EduFScar, 2009.
  2. SERENNA, Nathalia. História da educação no mundo e no Brasil. Disponible sur le site Web <https://www.jusbrasil.com.br/artigos/historia-da-educacao-no-mundo-e-no-brasil/605451719>.  
  3. GALOR, Oded. A Jornada da Humanidade. Rio de Janeiro: Intrinseca, 2023.
  4. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. A educação à distância no Brasil e no mundo. Disponible sur le site Web <https://pt.slideshare.net/falcoforado/a-educao-distncia-no-brasil-e-no-mundo?from_search=0>.
  5. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. A revolução da educação necessária ao Brasil na era contemporânea. Curitiba: Editora CRV, 2023.
  6. BLOG DA CONQUER. 6 tendências para o futuro da educação. Disponible sur le site Web <http://escolaconquer.com.br/6-tendencias-para-o-futuro-da-educacao/>.
  7. GOCONQR. Educação do Futuro. Disponible sur le site Web <https://www.goconqr.com/pt-BR/examtime/blog/educacao-futuro/>.
  • ​* Fernando Alcoforado, 84, a reçoit la Médaille du Mérite en Ingénierie du Système CONFEA / CREA, membre de l’Académie de l’Education de Bahia, de la SBPC – Société Brésilienne pour le Progrès des Sciences et l’IPB – Institut Polytechnique de Bahia, ingénieur de l’École Polytechnique UFBA et docteur en Planification du Territoire et Développement Régional de l’Université de Barcelone, professeur d’Université (Ingénierie, Économie et Administration) et consultant dans les domaines de la planification stratégique, de la planification d’entreprise, planification du territoire et urbanisme, systèmes énergétiques, a été Conseiller du Vice-Président Ingénierie et Technologie chez LIGHT S.A. Entreprise de distribution d’énergie électrique de Rio de Janeiro, coordinatrice de la planification stratégique du CEPED – Centre de recherche et de développement de Bahia, sous-secrétaire à l’énergie de l’État de Bahia, secrétaire à la  planification de Salvador, il est l’auteur de ouvrages Globalização (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC- O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem Mundial (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2000), Os condicionantes do desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de doutorado. Universidade de Barcelona,http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globalização e Desenvolvimento (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século XX e Objetivos Estratégicos na Era Contemporânea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The  Necessary Conditions of the Economic and Social Development- The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2010), Amazônia Sustentável- Para o progresso do Brasil e combate ao aquecimento global (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2011), Os Fatores Condicionantes do Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2012), Energia no Mundo e no Brasil- Energia e Mudança Climática Catastrófica no Século XXI (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2015), As Grandes Revoluções Científicas, Econômicas e Sociais que Mudaram o Mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2016), A Invenção de um novo Brasil (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2017), Esquerda x Direita e a sua convergência (Associação Baiana de Imprensa, Salvador, 2018), Como inventar o futuro para mudar o mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2019), A humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência (Editora Dialética, São Paulo, 2021), A escalada da ciência e da tecnologia e sua contribuição ao progresso e à sobrevivência da humanidade (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2022), est l’auteur d’un chapitre du livre Flood Handbook (CRC Press, Boca Raton, Floride, États-Unis, 2022), How to protect human beings from threats to their existence and avoid the extinction of humanity (Generis Publishing, Europe, Republic of Moldova, Chișinău, 2023) et A revolução da educação necessária ao  Brasil na era contemporânea (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2023).​

THE CLIMB OF EDUCATION IN THE WORLD FROM PREHISTORY TO THE CONTEMPORARY ERA (Part 2- The evolution of education in the world from the 18th century to the 21st century)

Fernando Alcoforado*

This article aims to present how education evolved in the world from the 18th century to the 21st century. This article represents the continuation of Part 1 of the article that addresses the evolution of education in the world from Prehistory to the 18th century. The analysis of the evolution of education in the world from Prehistory to the 18th century reveals that during most of human history, formal education was only accessible to a small and privileged sector of society. When it was supplied to broader sectors of society, it served mainly cultural, religious, social, spiritual and military purposes. However, in none of the educational systems implemented in Antiquity and the Middle Ages was the development of skills that would be useful for adult professional occupations the main concern. Literacy rates for most of human existence have been negligible. In the Middle Ages, literacy rates were less than 10% in countries such as China, France, Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands and even lower in other parts of the world [3].

The 18th century was a landmark moment in the history of humanity because it was at this time that the Enlightenment emerged in Europe and the Industrial Revolution took place in England, which transformed world society by leveraging the development of capitalism across the planet. It was also at this time that the Independence of the United States and the French Revolution occurred, driven by the ideal of the Enlightenment. As it could not fail to happen, all these events contributed to advances in the field of education, as can be seen by reading the next paragraphs.

1. Education in the 18th Century (1701 to 1800)

The 18th century was marked by numerous transformations that were greatly influenced by Enlightenment ideas. Among these transformations we can highlight; the Independence of the United States, the French Revolution and the 1st Industrial Revolution, all of them based on the ideas of the Enlightenment that sought to defend freedom, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government and the separation between Church and State. It was a time of consolidation of capitalism as the dominant economic system and the construction of the national State that represented the interests of the most economically powerful class: the bourgeoisie. Education as a right for all, the State’s obligation to maintain schools, the right to free public education, the guarantee that public schools are not under the control of any religious creed (secularism) were flags defended by the revolutionary bourgeoisie, but which were not fully put into practice after it became the dominant class [1].

In the centuries leading up to the Industrial Revolution in England in 1786, as Europe made its first advances in both technology and commerce, the importance of education began to increase. From this moment on, for the first time in history, there was the formation of human resources aimed at meeting the needs of industrialization through a workforce equipped with literacy, mathematical literacy and mechanical skills. Workers developed skills mainly through on-the-job training. Industrialization (1st Industrial Revolution in 1786 and 2nd Industrial Revolution in 1850) triggered a revolution in mass education in several European countries and the United States. The development of certain skills was necessary for the creation of an industrial society. Industrialized countries around the world have supported the provision of public education [3].

The 1st Industrial Revolution and the birth of factories created space for the emergence of the modern public school institution. The factory and the school are born together, the laws that create state schools come together with the laws that suppress corporate learning. Catholic influence in education began to decline, and its decline grew in the 19th century, with the suppression of the Jesuit order. In the 18th century, the process of secularization of education advanced with the removal of religious influence. From the 18th century onwards, it was considered a requirement for a worker to be at least literate and capable of operating the machines that were the symbol of the industrial revolution and the right to education for women and the people in general was recognized, an education that freed them from conditions of psychological and cognitive delay and marginality and placed them as productive elements within society [1].

Jean-Jacques Rousseau is considered the father of modern pedagogy for representing his thinking as the most advanced because he sought to point out to man how to achieve happiness, both in terms of the individual and in relation to society. In the first case, he formulated a pedagogy in which he draws the lines with the aim of making the child a good adult based on his belief in the natural goodness of man. The objectives of education for Rousseau involve two aspects: the development of the child’s natural potential and their avoidance of social evils. In the second case, he theorized about the political problem and wrote the Social Contract that formulated the constitution of a State as an organizer of civil society as it is known today. Rousseau believed that it would be possible to think of an ideal society, thus having his ideology reflected in the conception of the French Revolution at the end of the 18th century. According to Rousseau, it would be possible to preserve man’s natural freedom and at the same time guarantee the security and well-being of life in society through a social contract through which the sovereignty of society would prevail, the political sovereignty of the collective will [1].

The French Revolution of 1789 meant the intervention of the State in education traditionally handed over to the Catholic Church with the adoption of a policy that aims at a school that develops the student’s abilities, that establishes true equality between citizens, that provides complete freedom of education and that values scientific culture. Five grades of schools were established: primary, secondary, institutes, lyceums and universities (national society for science and arts). Revolutionary turmoil prevented the execution of this project. In 1794, the moderate revolutionaries (Girondians) overthrew the Jacobin government of Robespierre and took control of the Revolution. Faced with the threat of civil war, the Girondists carried out the “Coup of the 18th Brumaire” when Napoleon Bonaparte took power. In power, Napoleon’s expansionist policy imposed French interests in Europe and also spread secular, state and civil guidelines in the reorganization of education systems. Despite the revolutionary force emanating from France, proposals for state intervention in the field of education had already been occurring before 1789 [1].

It was in 1717, in Prussia, public education was established as a compulsory school for children between 5 and 12 years old, by King Frederick William. Later, laws emerged that prevented the hiring of any child who did not complete this mandatory study. This compulsory education was of profound interest to the State for the training of soldiers and workers, but it revolutionized society in several aspects. It was King Frederick William who inaugurated the Prussian compulsory education system, the first national system in Europe. In 1717, he ordered compulsory attendance for all children in state schools and, in later acts, followed with the provision for the construction of more schools. Frederick II’s successor, Frederick William III, Baron Von Stein, continued this educational ideal by abolishing semi-religious private schools, decreeing the need for a state examination and certification of all teachers, among other political measures regarding education. In 1812, the school graduation examination was resumed as a necessary requirement for a child’s entry into state schools, and an elaborate system of bureaucrats was established to supervise schools in the countryside and cities [2]. In England, mutual teaching emerged at the end of the 18th century, an educational initiative promoted by private individuals in which teenagers instructed directly by the master acted as assistants or monitors teaching other teenagers. In England, a pioneer of the industrial revolution, there was a tendency for education to be provided by the private sector using the mutual teaching method, unlike Germany and France where state initiative prevailed [1].

2. Education in the 19th Century (1801 to 1900)

In the 19th century, Pestalozzi’s pedagogies emerged, as well as positivist and socialist pedagogies. Pestalozzi’s pedagogy takes up Rousseau’s pedagogy, which considered that man is good and needs to be assisted in his development, considers that moral, intellectual and professional education must be developed closely linked to each other and also considers that instruction is necessary take into account the different experiences that each student must carry out in their own environment. Émile Durkheim’s positivist pedagogy considered that education is social learning and a means to conform individuals to the collective norms and values of societies. The socialist pedagogy proposed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels considered that education means intellectual training, physical education and technological instruction and that it is through education that society is transformed. Marx and Engels defended the thesis that the school should be entirely secular and free from the influence of the Church and the State [1].

It was in 1833 that a law revolutionized primary education in France and the world: the law that established the obligation of a primary school for children in communes with more than 500 inhabitants, in addition to a training school for basic education teachers in each French department. Jules Ferry, then Minister of Education, approved a law in 1881 that established free schools, and in 1882 a second law, which made education for children aged 3 to 6 years mandatory and secular. These laws served as a starting point for new laws on education that would emerge around the world. The French Revolution tried to shape the student based on the class consciousness that was the center of the program content. The bourgeoisie was clear about what it wanted from education: workers trained as citizens participating in a new liberal and democratic society. From the 16th century onwards, Germany took steps in this direction. In France, this impulse happened with the French Revolution. England came under pressure for school education with the Industrial Revolution. School expansion was consolidated in the 19th century when the interest in education as an element of valuing a nation became evident. It is important to note that in 1850, the adult illiteracy rate in Western Europe was approximately 40 to 45% of the population. With the inclusion of Russia, the illiteracy rate reached 60%. In Italy, Spain, Portugal and Greece, the illiteracy rate reached 60% to 70% [1]. These numbers demonstrate that education was a privilege of few in Europe.

Distance Education (EAD), widely used today, mediated by technologies in which students and teachers are separated spatially and/or temporally, that is, they are not physically present in a face-to-face teaching-learning environment, has been known since the 19th century . In 1833, an advertisement published in Sweden already referred to teaching by correspondence, and in England, in 1840. The improvement of postal services, the streamlining of means of transport and, above all, the technological development applied to the field of communication and information had a decisive influence on the fate of distance education. From then on, the use of a new means of communication began, radio, invented by Marconi in 1896, which also penetrated formal education. Radio has achieved great success in national and international experiences, having been widely explored in Latin America in distance education programs, including in Brazil [4].

3. Education in the 20th Century (1901 to 2000)

In the 20th century, the educational debate involved two major theoretical currents: the New School and the Marxist conception, the first identified with capitalism and the second with socialism. Neither of these two currents was fully applied. The New School was the pedagogical movement with the greatest influence on education in the 20th century. Its theorist was John Dewey who had Anísio Teixeira as his follower in Brazil. John Dewey defended the thesis that the school could not remain apart from productive transformation and economic growth, highlighted the democratic function of education and valued science as a method of democratic education. Dewey’s pedagogy is inspired by pragmatism, in permanent contact between the theoretical and practical moments, is intertwined with research in experimental sciences and, in particular, psychology and sociology and is committed to building a philosophy of education aimed at training citizen with a modern, scientific mindset and open to collaboration. Dewey’s pedagogy is part of a movement called the “active school” or “new school” from the end of the 19th century to the 1930s of the 20th century. Dewey’s pedagogy values the child, placing him at the center of the didactic activity, opposing the authoritarian characteristics of the traditional school [1].

Marxist pedagogy established a combination between education and society because every educational practice incorporates values and ideological interests linked to the economic and political structure of society, it adopted educational strategies considering the centrality of work in the formation of man focused on the future and the priority role that he must emphasize the value of the integrally human education of all people freed from conditions of submission and alienation. In the pre-Stalinist era, the Soviet school was deeply influenced by the pedagogy of Anton Makarenko, the greatest Russian pedagogue, who emphasized work, the collective, collaboration, the perspective of the “joy of tomorrow” and happiness for everyone and not just the happiness of the individual as advocated by Rousseau and the revolutionaries of the Enlightenment. While John Dewey’s New School became a reference in capitalist countries, Marxism influenced education in the Soviet Union and the socialist countries of Eastern Europe. Neither the New School prevailed in capitalist countries, nor did Marxist pedagogy materialize in the Soviet Union or in Eastern European countries [1].

The Marxist ideologue, Antonio Gramsci, formulated a richer pedagogical model. In his theorization he valued the human activity that interprets and transforms reality. Gramsci believed that it is possible to bring together classes or social groups interested in building social change to build a cultural and political hegemony contrary to capitalism. Gramsci considered that cultural hegemony is built through the action of many educational institutions that must cover every citizen. Gramsci developed the pedagogical proposal of the “single school” seeking to equate intellectual work and productive work, developing the ability to think and knowing how to direct oneself in life. As for the educational principle and contents, he defended socialist humanism and the “single school of general culture” (intellectual work and manual work) followed by specialized schools (professionals) [1].

In the 20th century, there were several original pedagogical innovations in developing countries that had resonance in Europe and the United States, such as the adult education campaign applying awareness models as Paulo Freire did in Brazil. According to Paulo Freire, within the few existing schools, a teaching-learning concept prevailed based on pedagogical contents that were completely disassociated from the concrete socioeconomic reality experienced by Brazilian society at the time. Paulo Freire developed his “pedagogy of the oppressed”. For him, the transition from a “closed society” (agrarian) to an “open society” (urban-industrial) necessarily demanded the eradication of illiteracy, as the condition of existence of the illiterate implied the manifestation of a naive consciousness in relation to the surrounding world and, therefore, reproduces the old agrarian social “status quo”. For Paulo Freire, it was therefore necessary to free the man who lived trapped in the “closed society” through access to knowledge historically accumulated by humanity.

4. Education in the 21st Century (2001 to the present)

In the contemporary era, education is no longer just face-to-face to also become non-face-to-face or partially face-to-face with distance education (EAD), which is, in modern times, a modality of education mediated by technologies in which students and teachers are spatially separated and/or temporally, that is, they are not physically present in a face-to-face teaching-learning environment. Today education can be processed in person, semi-in-person and distance learning. In-person education corresponds to regular courses where teachers and students always meet at an educational institution. Blended education takes place partly in the classroom and partly remotely, using information technology. Currently, EAD makes it possible to insert the student as a subject in their learning process, with the advantage that they also discover ways to become an active subject of research and share content. In distance learning there is no difference between its methodology and that used in face-to-face teaching. What changes, basically, is not the teaching methodology, but the form of communication. In this learning process, as well as in regular education, the learning advisor or tutor acts as a “mediator”, that is, the one who establishes a multidirectional communication and learning network [4].

Today, the possibilities of EAD are broad. It is possible take a distance course in practically the same way as in-person courses, with students attending teacher classes online, with audiovisual content being shown. Assessments can be carried out in real time, also via the network, with the right amount of time to complete them. The teaching methodology, the way of evaluating student learning and the teaching staff’s performance in distance education have undergone a revolution. Abroad, there is a tendency to close the border between distance and face-to-face education. Courses that were previously exclusively in-person now include a part carried out remotely. In Brazil, since the founding of the Monitor Institute in 1939, several distance education experiments have been initiated and carried out with relative success. Brazilian experiences, governmental and private, were many and represented, in recent decades, the mobilization of large amounts of resources. Currently, non-face-to-face teaching mobilizes pedagogical resources from almost the entire world, both in industrialized nations and in developing countries. New and more complex courses are developed, both within formal education systems and in the areas of professional training [4].

Technological progress has facilitated the dissemination of knowledge, obscuring the centrality of the school, making it a requirement to redefine its role in the contemporary era. The school is no longer the only locus that transmits knowledge. In the contemporary era, however, it is up to the school to provide full human formation [5]. The great educational challenge of the future is represented by the rapid changes that are occurring in the world of work thanks to technological advances, especially the impact of artificial intelligence, which was born from Computer Science and is an extremely multidisciplinary area, involving Psychology, Neuroscience, Decision Theory and Economy, which could lead to the end of some professions and generate mass unemployment of qualified and unskilled workers. All of this suggests that we are experiencing a transition that places enormous strain on the economy and society. Education offered in its current form to workers and students preparing to enter the job market is likely to be ineffective. In other words, education systems are preparing workers for a world of work that is ceasing to exist [5].

These changes are requiring the adoption of new measures aimed at qualifying the workforce, who must know how to use technology as a complement, a tool, and not as a substitute for their skills. Some functions are assigned to intelligent machines and systems. New functions for human beings emerge in this new scenario. It is up to education system planners to identify the role of human beings in the world of work in a future with the presence of intelligent machines to carry out a broad revolution in teaching at all levels, including the qualification of teachers and the structuring of teaching units to prepare their students for a world of work in which people will have to deal with intelligent machines. The curricula of teaching units at all levels must be profoundly restructured to achieve these objectives [5].

To adapt to changes in the economy and society driven by technological advancement, a revolution in education systems is already taking place in the contemporary era with regard to the adoption of new teaching methodologies such as those described below [6]:

1. Classrooms – Instead of being intended for theory, the classrooms will aim for practice. The student learns the theory at home and practices in the classroom with the help of a teacher/mentor.

2. Personalized learning – Students will learn with tools that adapt to their own abilities, being able to learn at different times and locations. This means that above average students will be challenged with exercises that are more difficult and those with more difficulty will have the opportunity to practice more until they reach the desired level. This process will make teachers better able to clearly see what type of help each student needs.

3. Free choice – Students will have the freedom to modify their learning process, choosing the subjects they want to learn based on their own preferences and will be able to use different devices, programs and techniques that they deem necessary for their own learning.

4. Practical applicability – Knowledge will not just remain in theory, it will be put into practice through projects so that students acquire mastery of the technique and also practice organization, teamwork and leadership.

5. EQ > IQ (emotional quotient > intelligence quotient) – Since technology brings more efficiency and is increasingly replacing human work in various areas, training must include the presence of essentially human skills and further value the social interactions. Schools must provide more opportunities for students to acquire real-world skills that will make a difference in their jobs. This means more space for work programs, more collaborative projects, more practice.

6. The assessment system will change – Many argue that the way the question and answer system in exams is not effective, as many students just memorize the content and forget it the next day after the assessment. Furthermore, this system does not adequately assess what the student is actually capable of doing with that content in practice. Therefore, the tendency is for assessments to take place when carrying out real projects, with students executing their projects.

Professor José Moran, one of the founders of the Escola do Futuro Project at USP (University of São Paulo), researcher and designer of innovative projects in education with an emphasis on values, active methodologies, flexible models and digital technologies, considers that the education of the future should have the following characteristics [7]:

1. A single model, proposal, path for education should not be adopted. Working with challenges, with real projects, with games seems to be the most important path today, which can be done in different ways and in different contexts. It´s possible to teach through problems and projects in a disciplinary model and in models without isolated disciplines; with more open models – with a more participatory and procedural construction – and with more scripted models, prepared in advance, planned in their smallest details.

2. Some components are fundamental to the success of learning: the creation of challenges, activities, games that really bring the necessary skills to each stage, that request pertinent information, that offer stimulating rewards, that combine personal journeys with meaningful participation in groups, that are part of adaptive platforms, that recognize each student and at the same time learn from interaction, all using appropriate technologies. The articulator of the individual and group stages is the teacher, with his ability to monitor, mediate, analyze the processes, results, gaps and needs, based on the paths taken by students individually and as a group. This new role of the teacher is more complex than the previous one of transmitting information. You need preparation in broader skills, in addition to knowledge of the content, such as knowing how to adapt to the group and each student; plan, monitor and evaluate significant and different activities.

3. Teaching and learning can be done in a much more flexible, active way and based on the rhythm of each student. The most interesting and promising model for using technology is to concentrate basic information in the virtual environment and the more creative and supervised activities in the classroom. The combination of learning through challenges, real problems, games is very important so that students learn by doing, learn together and also learn at their own pace. It is also decisive in valuing the role of the teacher as a manager of rich processes of meaningful learning and not as a simple transmitter of information. If we change the mentality of teachers to be mediators, they can use nearby resources, simple technologies, such as those on a cell phone, a camera to illustrate, a free program to combine images and tell interesting stories with them and for students to be authors, protagonists of their learning process.

4. The challenges of changing education are structural. It is necessary to increase the number of quality schools, schools with good managers, teachers and infrastructure, that can motivate students and that truly promote meaningful, complex and comprehensive learning. There needs to be a career plan, training and appreciation for educational managers and teachers. Consistent training policies are needed to attract the best teachers, pay them well and qualify them better, and innovative management policies that bring successful management models to basic and higher education.

5. Educators need to learn to fulfill themselves as people and as professionals, in precarious and difficult contexts, learn to always evolve in all fields, to be more affectionate and at the same time know how to manage groups. They must become inspiring and motivating educators.

The management and existing infrastructure of an educational unit are important in teaching at any level. However, the success of student learning depends on the teacher who, in the education of the future, would no longer be a mere passer of information to students and would take on the role of articulator of teaching in individual and group activities with his ability to monitor, mediate, to analyze the processes, results, gaps and needs, based on the paths taken by students individually and as a group. It is proven worldwide that the teacher is the key to quality teaching and, therefore, improving student performance.

REFERENCES

  1. BITTAR, Marisa. A História da educação. Da Antiguidade à era contemporânea. São Carlos: EduFScar, 2009.
  2. SERENNA, Nathalia. História da educação no mundo e no Brasil. Available on the website <https://www.jusbrasil.com.br/artigos/historia-da-educacao-no-mundo-e-no-brasil/605451719>.  
  3. GALOR, Oded. A Jornada da Humanidade. Rio de Janeiro: Intrinseca, 2023.
  4. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. A educação à distância no Brasil e no mundo. Available on the website <https://pt.slideshare.net/falcoforado/a-educao-distncia-no-brasil-e-no-mundo?from_search=0>.
  5. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. A revolução da educação necessária ao Brasil na era contemporânea. Curitiba: Editora CRV, 2023.
  6. BLOG DA CONQUER. 6 tendências para o futuro da educação. Available on the website <http://escolaconquer.com.br/6-tendencias-para-o-futuro-da-educacao/>.
  7. GOCONQR. Educação do Futuro. Available on the website <https://www.goconqr.com/pt-BR/examtime/blog/educacao-futuro/>.

* Fernando Alcoforado, awarded the medal of Engineering Merit of the CONFEA / CREA System, member of the Bahia Academy of Education, of the SBPC- Brazilian Society for the Progress of Science and of IPB- Polytechnic Institute of Bahia, engineer from the UFBA Polytechnic School and doctor in Territorial Planning and Regional Development from the University of Barcelona, college professor (Engineering, Economy and Administration) and consultant in the areas of strategic planning, business planning, regional planning, urban planning and energy systems, was Advisor to the Vice President of Engineering and Technology at LIGHT S.A. Electric power distribution company from Rio de Janeiro, Strategic Planning Coordinator of CEPED- Bahia Research and Development Center, Undersecretary of Energy of the State of Bahia, Secretary of Planning of Salvador, is the author of the books Globalização (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC- O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem Mundial (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2000), Os condicionantes do desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de doutorado. Universidade de Barcelona,http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globalização e Desenvolvimento (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século XX e Objetivos Estratégicos na Era Contemporânea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The Necessary Conditions of the Economic and Social Development- The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2010), Amazônia Sustentável- Para o progresso do Brasil e combate ao aquecimento global (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2011), Os Fatores Condicionantes do Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2012), Energia no Mundo e no Brasil- Energia e Mudança Climática Catastrófica no Século XXI (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2015), As Grandes Revoluções Científicas, Econômicas e Sociais que Mudaram o Mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2016), A Invenção de um novo Brasil (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2017),  Esquerda x Direita e a sua convergência (Associação Baiana de Imprensa, Salvador, 2018), Como inventar o futuro para mudar o mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2019), A humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência (Editora Dialética, São Paulo, 2021), A escalada da ciência e da tecnologia e sua contribuição ao progresso e à sobrevivência da humanidade (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2022), a chapter in the book Flood Handbook (CRC Press,  Boca Raton, Florida United States, 2022), How to protect human beings from threats to their existence and avoid the extinction of humanity (Generis Publishing, Europe, Republic of Moldova, Chișinău, 2023) and A revolução da educação necessária ao Brasil na era contemporânea (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2023).