Fernando Alcoforado*
This article aims to present what needs to be done to contribute to the adoption of scientific and technological solutions to prevent the extinction of humanity from threats that exist in outer space and that could reach planet Earth. The threats to the survival of humanity were analyzed in our books A humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência (A threatened humanity and strategies for its survival) with the subtitle Como salvar a humanidade das ameaças à sua extinção (How to save humanity from threats to its extinction) published by Editora Dialética de São Paulo in 2021 [1] and “How to protect human beings from threats to their existence and avoid the extinction of humanity” published by Generis Publishing of Europe (Chișinău, Republic of Moldova) in 2023 [2].
There are countless threats to humanity’s survival coming from outer space today and in the short, medium and long term future. The threats that exist in outer space concern: 1) collision on planet Earth of asteroids, comets or pieces of comets; 2) collision on planet Earth of planets of the solar system; 3) collision on planet Earth of orphan planets wandering in outer space; 4) emission of cosmic rays, especially gamma rays emitted by supernova stars; 5) catastrophic consequences on the Earth’s environment resulting from the continued distancing of the Moon from the Earth; 6) death of the Sun; 7) collision of the Andromeda and Milky Way galaxies where the Earth is located; and, 8) end of the Universe. All these catastrophic events, which could occur in the short, medium and long term, could contribute to humanity being driven to extinction as a species if nothing is done to protect humanity.
The collision of asteroids and comets or pieces of comets on planet Earth
The collision on planet Earth of asteroids and comets or pieces of comets, which threaten to collide with Earth, requires the adoption of strategies to avoid their collisions with Earth (Figure 1).
Figure 1- Collision of asteroids and comets with planet Earth
To deal with asteroids that could collide with planet Earth, the strategy consists of diverting them from their course if they are detected with enough time to launch interceptors. The same solution must be adopted for comets whose pieces may reach planet Earth. It is very important that there is constant monitoring of outer space to identify not only asteroids, but also comets or pieces of comets, which could collide with the Earth and powerful rockets capable of diverting them from their routes are developed. Another alternative is to destroy threatening asteroids and comets with the use of nuclear bombs if they are at a great distance from planet Earth [1] [2] [3] [4].
The collision on planet Earth of planets of the solar system
The collision of planets in the solar system on planet Earth requires the adoption of strategies to promote constant monitoring of outer space to identify the threat of destabilization of the solar system by the planet Mercury and other planets and research to identify possible locations outside the solar system with the possibility of being inhabited by human beings to plan their escape, as is the case with the exoplanet “Proxima b”, which orbits a star that is part of the Alpha Centauri system, the closest to the solar system, where space colonies would be established that would require great scientific advancement and technological to make them viable [1] [2] [5] [8] (Figure 2).
Figure 2- Collision of planets in the solar system with planet Earth
Source: https://www.infoescola.com/astronomia/planetas-do-sistema-solar/
The collision on planet Earth of orphan planets
The collision on planet Earth of orphan planets that roam in outer space requires constant monitoring of outer space to identify orphan planets that could collide with Earth and determine the time of their collision with a view to adopting measures that indicate the need to plan the escape of human beings to other places located in the solar system such as Mars, Titan (Saturn’s moon) and Callisto (Jupiter’s moon) with the possibility of being inhabited by human beings with the implementation of space colonies that would require great scientific and technological advances to make them viable [1] [2] [6] (Figure 3).
Figure 3- Collision of orphan planets with planet Earth
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=92cO0L1rETU
The emission of cosmic rays, especially gamma rays emitted by supernova stars
The emission of cosmic rays from the Sun and outer space requires the adoption of strategies that allow: 1) using the Soho satellite, which operates in an intermediate position between the Earth and the Sun, to detect explosions on the solar surface and send messages about the arrival of the storm cosmic approach to Earth to avoid damage to electricity distribution networks and satellite operators can protect themselves by correcting satellite courses or turning off their equipment; and, 2) protect human beings from cosmic radiation in long-term space travel in outer space, promoting scientific and technological advances in addition to increasing the biological capacity of human beings to undertake space travel and live outside the Earth [1] [2] [7] (Figure 4).
Figure 4- Emission of cosmic rays
Source: https://www.astropt.org/2015/06/07/a-particula-que-quebrou-um-limite-de-velocidade-cosmica/
The emission of gamma rays emitted by supernova stars, which have the power to annihilate life on Earth, requires the adoption of strategies that allow: 1) the colonization of other worlds in the solar system, such as Mars among others, before the explosion of some supernova star whose gamma rays can reach planet Earth; and, 2) monitor the explosion of supernova stars permanently to assess whether the Earth could be hit by gamma rays so that, if possible, before and during the occurrence of their explosion, the necessary measures are adopted to promote escape human beings to places with the possibility of being inhabited in the solar system such as Mars, Titan (Saturn’s moon) and Callisto (Jupiter’s moon [1] [2] (Figure 5).
Figure 5- Gamma rays emitted by supernova stars
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oQ95J9OQVs0
The catastrophic consequences on the Earth’s environment resulting from the Moon’s continued distancing from the Earth
Earth and Moon are united by a strong gravitational bond and affect each other (Figure 6).
Figure 6- Earth-Moon System
Source: https://moonblink.info/Eclipse/why/solsys
Because the Earth rotates on its axis faster than the Moon rotates around the Earth, the greater force of gravity from the water relief on Earth tries to speed up the Moon’s rotation, while the Moon attracts the Earth and slows the planet’s rotation. With this friction, this “tug of war” forces the Moon into a wider orbit, moving away from the Earth. It was through lasers fired towards reflectors installed on the surface of the Moon by astronauts from the Apollo mission that it was possible to accurately measure the exact speed at which the Moon is moving away from Earth. It has been confirmed that it moves 3.8 centimeters away per year. This process must continue until the Moon, which is currently 384,400 km away from Earth, reaches 560,000 km. When this happens, days on Earth will become progressively longer. During the night, the temperatures would freeze everyone to death. Throughout the day, no one could bear the heat. On the coast, there would be very violent winds of 200 km/h. In terms of life, there would be almost nothing left, except super-resistant bacteria and worms. When this occurs, the Earth’s rotation will stabilize, the days will be 1,152 hours long and life on the planet will be unviable. The consequences for the Earth’s environment resulting from the continued distancing of the Moon from Earth will therefore be catastrophic. The continued distancing of the Moon from Earth will require the adoption of human escape strategies to places that can be inhabited by humans in the solar system, when necessary (Mars, Titan – Saturn’s moon and Callisto – Jupiter’s moon) [1] [2].
The death of the Sun
The Sun emerged about 4.6 billion years ago, being one of more than 100 billion stars in the Milky Way galaxy orbiting around the center of this galaxy at a distance of about 24 to 26 thousand light years from the galactic center . During its evolution, Sun gave rise to the rocky planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars) and the gaseous planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune) [1] [2] (Figure 7).
Figure 7- The Sun and its planets
The death of the Sun will occur when it is at an advanced stage of its life. As its fuel (hydrogen) is consumed, the temperature increases and the Sun expands. As it grows, the Sun loses mass and dies, bringing the solar system to an end. At this stage, it is called a red giant. Astronomers’ calculations indicate that, when the Sun becomes a red giant, the diameter of the Sun at its equator will grow to the point of surpassing the planet Mars, consuming all the rocky planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. And this will, in fact, be the end of planet Earth [9]. After this stage, the gravitational force begins to prevail and the Sun begins to shrink. When this happens, the solar system becomes chaos and the Sun loses a tremendous amount of mass. The evolution of the Sun until its death requires strategies for human beings to escape from Earth to places with the possibility of being inhabited in other star systems before the death of the Sun, such as the exoplanet “Proxima b” orbiting the closest star to the Sun that is part of the Alpha Centauri system which is 4.2 light years from Earth which corresponds to 39.9 trillion kilometers away [1] [2].
The collision of the Andromeda and Milky Way galaxies
NASA scientists have revealed that the collision of the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies will happen approximately four billion years from now [1] [2] (Figure 8). The Milky Way is one of the galaxies in the Universe where the solar system is located, which brings together a group of planets like the Earth that revolve around the Sun (Figure 9). Both galaxies are attracting each other thanks to the force of gravity that acts between the bodies. This prediction of the collision of the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies was possible thanks to measurements carried out by the Hubble Space Telescope when monitoring the movement of Andromeda, located 2.5 million light years from Earth. The collision of the Andromeda and Milky Way galaxies requires the adoption of escape strategies by human beings to places with the possibility of being inhabited in other galaxies before the collision of the Andromeda and Milky Way galaxies, such as the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy located 25 thousand years-light from Earth, which corresponds to 237,500 trillion kilometers away from Earth, which is a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way located in the constellation Canis Major, or the Large Magellanic Cloud which is located 163 thousand light years from Earth, which corresponds to 1,548,500 trillion kilometers away from Earth [1] [2].
Figure 8- Collision of the Andromeda and Milky Way galaxies
Source: https://astronomy-universo.blogspot.com/2012/04/as-bizarras-diferencas-entre-via-Láctea.html
Figure 9- The Solar System in the Milky Way
The end of the Universe
The Universe, which is 13.8 billion years old since the Big Bang, could come to an end considering three scenarios: 1) the thermal death of the Universe; 2) the Big Crunch of the Universe; or, 3) the Big Rip of the Universe [1] [2] [11]. The thermal death of the Universe, considered the most likely scenario for the end of the Universe, could occur between 1 and 100 trillion years if the Universe continues to expand as it currently does. On a time scale on the order of a trillion years, existing stars will burn out, and the Universe will go dark and approach a highly entropic state. On a much longer time scale, galaxies will collapse into black holes that will eventually evaporate. The Universe will be brought to a frozen state.
With the Big Crunch or Great Collapse of the Universe, a scenario that could occur 100 billion years from now, Universe would contract after expansion due to gravitational attraction until it collapsed in on itself, which would be analogous to a Big Bang inversion. This scenario assumes an oscillatory Universe, as a cyclical model that conflicts, however, with current observations that suggest that this universe model is probably not correct because the expansion of the Universe tends to continue.
With the Big Rip or Great Rupture of the Universe, which could happen in 22 billion years, the expansion rate of the Universe would increase without limit. Gravitationally bound systems such as galaxy clusters, galaxies and, ultimately, the solar system would be torn apart. The expansion of the Universe would be so rapid that it would overcome the electromagnetic forces that hold molecules and atoms together. The atomic nuclei would also be torn apart and the Universe would expand so much that the electromagnetic force that holds things together would fall, causing everything to fall apart.
Figure 10 presents the Universe observable from Earth and Figure 11 presents the evolution of the Universe from its birth with the Big Bang to its end with the Big Rip. With the Big Rip, everything in the Universe, even spacetime, will be torn apart by the expansion of the Universe until the distances between particles become infinite.
Figure 10- Observable universe seen from planet Earth
Source: https://www.facebook.com/decifrandoastronomia/posts/2534658206777733/
Figure 11- From the birth to the end of the Universe
Source: https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/geral-38058979
With the end of the Universe, the existence of multiverses or parallel universes opens up the possibility for human beings to survive by heading to other parallel universes [10]. Multiverse is a term used to describe the hypothetical set of possible universes, including the Universe in which we live. Together, these universes comprise everything that exists: the totality of space, time, matter, energy, and the physical laws and constants that describe them. The concept of Multiverse has its roots in extrapolations, up to the moment of modern Cosmology and Quantum Physics and also encompasses several ideas arising from the Theory of Relativity in order to configure a scenario in which it may be possible for the existence of countless universes where, on a scale Globally, all probabilities and combinations occur in one of the universes. The idea that we live in a multiverse made up of an infinite number of parallel universes has, for many years, been considered a scientific possibility. The challenge is to find a way to test this theory [10].
Parallel universes would be, in an analogy, similar to bubbles floating in a larger space capable of housing them (Figure 12).
Figure 12- Parallel universes
Source: https://www.epochtimes.com.br/multiplas-dimensoes-supercordas-mundos-paralelos/
One of the ideas that Stephen Hawking delved into, by the way, was the concept that there are many other universes than the one we live in with completely unknown galaxies, stars and planets [12]. Although there is no evidence that these parallel universes actually exist, Hawking had been working with Thomas Hertog to prove that it is possible to observe the cosmos and find evidence of these mysterious places. After Hawking’s death, Hertog remains researching the deepest questions of the Universe at the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Leuven, in Belgium. According to Hertog, finding evidence of the Big Bang would add further support to the idea that this type of event is responsible for creating other universes – a reality that would momentarily alter people’s understanding of space and themselves. In-depth research needs to be carried out to determine whether or not there is a multiverse or parallel universes where humanity would head with the end of the Universe in which we live [1] [2].
Carrying out research to elucidate the fate of the Universe and the existence of parallel universes are very important, but the main one concerns the development of the final theory or theory of everything or unified field theory because, based on your knowledge, would collaborate in the sense that science provides the conditions for humanity to face the threats to its survival that exist in outer space and, above all, collaborate in the sense of pointing out ways for humanity to survive and escape to parallel universes. The final theory or theory of everything, that is, the unified field theory, would seek to explain and connect all physical phenomena into a single theoretical structure, bringing together quantum mechanics and the theory of general relativity in a single theoretical and mathematical treatment. Completing a theory of everything would also allow us to verify the consequences of using advanced technologies for the benefit of humanity. Success in elucidating these cosmological questions will certainly provide the conditions for the scientific and technological advancement essential to the survival of humanity as a species [13].
Conclusions
Based on the above, the only possibility for humanity to avoid its extinction from all threats coming from outer space is for human beings to spread and colonize other worlds in the Universe. The only threat that does not demand the escape of humans beings to other worlds in the solar system or outside it is the collision of asteroids and comets or pieces of comets on planet Earth. The other threats will require human beings to flee to other worlds. To avoid the threat of extinction of humanity, it is necessary to face the challenges presented in the article we authored, The human challenges of conquering space and colonizing other worlds [14], which are described below:
1- Production of rockets that reach speeds close to that of light to travel to the ends of the Universe
2- Production of technologies capable of protecting human beings during space travel
3- Identification of other worlds similar to Earth capable of being habitable by human beings
4- Enabling humans to survive in space and in habitable places outside the Earth
The first great human challenge is the production of rockets that are capable of reaching speeds close to the speed of light (300,000 km/s) given the need to promote intergalactic travel by human beings to the ends of the Universe and even to universes parallels. This action is necessary due to the need for human beings to colonize other worlds in the solar system or outside it, and even in parallel universes. This action is also necessary because current rockets are quite limited in their escape velocity. The following are being tested: 1) the ion engine, an ion propulsion system, which could reach speeds close to that of light; and, 2) the Bussard propulsion for spacecraft that could accelerate to a speed close to the speed of light, and would be a very efficient type of spacecraft.
The second great human challenge is the production of technologies capable of protecting human beings in space travel, such as those that NASA is developing to protect humans on Mars: 1) Inflatable thermal shield to land astronauts on other planets; 2) High-tech space suits for astronauts; 3) Martian house and laboratory on wheels; 4) Uninterruptible power as a source of reliable energy supply to explore Mars; and, 5) Laser communications to send more information to Earth.
The third great human challenge is to identify other worlds similar to Earth capable of being habitable by human beings by designing and sending space probes to carry out research in possible locations inside and outside the solar system. To date, there is no evidence that there is another place inside or outside the solar system that is conducive to life similar to Earth. Currently, there are efforts to colonize the planet Mars. However, from what is known about Mars, this planet does not present the necessary conditions for human beings to inhabit it because it does not have a magnetic field or atmosphere and biosphere similar to those of Earth, as well as having an average gravitational acceleration of around 38% at of the Earth harmful to human life.
The fourth great human challenge is to enable human beings to survive in space and in habitable places outside the Earth. The colonization of Mars and other worlds in the Universe indicates that there is an extreme need for the development of more biologically evolved human beings with the use of science and technology to enable them to defy the limits imposed by nature and survive as a species today and in the future. It is necessary to ensure that the formation of supermen and superwomen occurs, which can be achieved through the use of science and technology (biotechnology, nanotechnology and neurotechnology) to increase cognitive capacity and overcome the physical and psychological limitations of humans beings.
REFERENCES
1. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. A humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência. São Paulo: Editora Dialética, 2021.
2. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. How to protect human beings from threats to their existence and avoid the extinction of humanity. Chișinău, Republic of Moldova: Generis Publishing, 2023.
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* Fernando Alcoforado, awarded the medal of Engineering Merit of the CONFEA / CREA System, member of the Bahia Academy of Education, of the SBPC- Brazilian Society for the Progress of Science and of IPB- Polytechnic Institute of Bahia, engineer from the UFBA Polytechnic School and doctor in Territorial Planning and Regional Development from the University of Barcelona, college professor (Engineering, Economy and Administration) and consultant in the areas of strategic planning, business planning, regional planning, urban planning and energy systems, was Advisor to the Vice President of Engineering and Technology at LIGHT S.A. Electric power distribution company from Rio de Janeiro, Strategic Planning Coordinator of CEPED- Bahia Research and Development Center, Undersecretary of Energy of the State of Bahia, Secretary of Planning of Salvador, is the author of the books Globalização (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC- O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem Mundial (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2000), Os condicionantes do desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de doutorado. Universidade de Barcelona,http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globalização e Desenvolvimento (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século XX e Objetivos Estratégicos na Era Contemporânea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The Necessary Conditions of the Economic and Social Development- The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG, Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2010), Amazônia Sustentável- Para o progresso do Brasil e combate ao aquecimento global (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2011), Os Fatores Condicionantes do Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2012), Energia no Mundo e no Brasil- Energia e Mudança Climática Catastrófica no Século XXI (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2015), As Grandes Revoluções Científicas, Econômicas e Sociais que Mudaram o Mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2016), A Invenção de um novo Brasil (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2017), Esquerda x Direita e a sua convergência (Associação Baiana de Imprensa, Salvador, 2018), Como inventar o futuro para mudar o mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2019), A humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência (Editora Dialética, São Paulo, 2021), A escalada da ciência e da tecnologia e sua contribuição ao progresso e à sobrevivência da humanidade (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2022), a chapter in the book Flood Handbook (CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida United States, 2022), How to protect human beings from threats to their existence and avoid the extinction of humanity (Generis Publishing, Europe, Republic of Moldova, Chișinău, 2023) and A revolução da educação necessária ao Brasil na era contemporânea (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2023).
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